THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST

SECOND

THIRD

FOURTH

FIFTH

SIXTH

SEVENTH

EIGHTH

NINTH

TENTH

ELEVENTH

edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771.

ten 1777—1784.

eighteen 1788 — 1797.

twenty 1801 — 1810.

twenty 1815 — 1817.

twenty 1823 — 1824.

twenty-one 1830 — 1842.

twenty-two 1853 — 1860.

twenty-five 1875 — 1889.
ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.

published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

All rights reserved

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME
AUSTRIA LOWER to BISECTRIX

Cambridge, England:

at the University Press

New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1910

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,

by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME III. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

4

A. C. P. ANNA C. PAUES, PH.D. [

Lecturer in Germanic Philology at Newnham College, Cambridge. Formerly H Bible, English.
Fellow of Newnham College. Author of A Fourteenth Century Biblical Version ; &c. I

A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. / Beaumont and Fletcher

See biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON C.

A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.Soc. f

Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' J Balnaves;
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- "\ Barnes, Robert;
1901. Lothian prizeman (Oxford), 1892; Arnold prizeman, 1898. Author of Bilney.
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. «•

A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J" geza>

Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. L

A. G. G. SIR ALFRED GEORGE GREENHILL, M.A., F.R.S. f

Formerly Professor of Mathematics in the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author J Ballistics
of Differential and Integral Calculus with Applications; Hydrostatics; Notes on\
Dynamics; &c.

A. HL ARTHUR HASSALL, M. A. f Austria-Hunirarv rr;<iarv (i

Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Author of A Handbook of European J Ausina-nungary. tlislory \
History; The Balance of Power; &c. Editor of the 3rd edition of T. H. Dyer's | part).
History of Modern Europe.

A. H. N. ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, LL.D., D.D. f

Professor of Church History, Baylor University, Texas. Professor at McMaster J T>__ij_ic. t
University, Toronto, 1881-1901. Author of The Baptist Churches in the United] BaPll'>ls- American.
States; Manual of Church History; A Century of Baptist Achievement. I

A. H.-S. SIR A. HouruM-ScHiNDLER, C.I.E. f Azerbaijan; Bakhtiari;

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Bander Abbasi; Barf urush.

A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.LITT., LL.D. f Babylon5 Babylonia and

See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. Assyria; Belshazzar;

Berossus.

A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. r

Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News J Bahia: Slate;
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. [ Bahia: City.

A. L. ANDREW LANG.

See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW.

A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. f «:_,. nf

See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. \ B s OI

A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. [

President, South African Medical Congress, 1893. Author of South African Studies ; Ra«utnlnnri> fTitinrv (i*
&c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical J ,

practice in South Africa till 1 896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Becnuanaiand (in part).
Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910.

A. Sp. ARCHIBALD SHARP.

Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent.

f
\

A. St H. G. ALFRED ST HILL GIBBONS. f

Major, East Yorkshire Regiment. Explorer in South Central Africa. Author of \ Barotse, Barotseland.
Africa from South to North through Marotseland. \_

A.W.* AwHURWiLLEYF.RSD.se. JBalanoglossus.

Director of Colombo Museum, Ceylon. L

(•Austria-Hungary: History (in
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. part) ;

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. L Bavaria: History (in part).

'A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.

v

1972

vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

A. W. Po. ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A. f

Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King s College,

London. Hon. Secretary Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books; H Bibliography and Bibliology.

and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of the Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe "

Chaucer.

B. K. PRINCE BOJIDAR KARAGEORGEVITCH (d. 1908). C

Artist, art critic, designer and goldsmith. Contributor to the Paris Figaro, the I Basi,kirtseff
Magazine of Art, &c. Author of Enchanted India. Translator of the works of Tolstoi |
and Jokai, &c.

C. THE EARL OF CREWE, K.G., F.S.A. -fnanville

See the biographical article: CREWE, IST EARL OF. \ **

C. A. C. CHARLES ARTHUR CONANT. (~

Member of Commission on International Exchange of U.S., 19x13. Treasurer, I Banks ana Banking :
Morton Trust Co., New York, 1902-1906. Author of History of Modern Banks | American.
of Issue; The Principles of Money and Banking; &c. I

C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D. is L., Lrrr.D. (Oxon.). -f Baluze • Beam

See the biographical article: BEMONT, C. I.

f

l -\
I

See the biographical article: BEMONT, C.

C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Austrian Succession War :

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal -
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.

C. F. B. CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D. f

Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of I Bimetallism
Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International j
Trade; &c.

C. H. T. CUTHBERT HAMILTON TURNER, M.A. ,

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford ; Fellow of the British Academy. Speaker's nivi. . \r T i i

Lecturer in Biblical Studies in the University of Oxford, 1906-1909. First Editor I al°

of the Journal of Theological Studies, 1899-1902. Author of " Chronology of the 1 Chronology.

New Testament," and " Greek Patristic Commentaries on the Pauline Epistles "

in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, &c.

C. H. W. J. REV. CLAUDE HERMANN WALTER JOHNS, M.A., LITT.D. r

Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Assyriology, Queens'
College, Cambridge, and King's College, London. Author of Assyrian Deeds and\ Babylonian Law.
Documents of the 7th Century B.C.; The Oldest Code of Laws; Babylonian and Assyrian
Laws; Contracts and Letters; &c. I

C. J. L. SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.).

Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King's I
College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-^ Bihar! Lai.
1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of
Translations of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c,

C. Mi. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. r

Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-J
potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902-]
I9°3- I

C. PL REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. r

Fellow and Chaplain of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. \ Bede.
Author of Life and Times of Alfred the Great; &c.

C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. r

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Beatus*
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. \ f,
Lothian prizeman (Oxford), 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Benaim.
Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. L

C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). r

Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary

Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- n.i,,,* (• A w\

mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General 1 Belrul W fart>-

of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of

Lord Clive; &c. I

D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, D.D. r

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. \ Bairam-

D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. fn«>i»i,^. r J.L j

Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon ; J < £*. l*eo&raPlty and
India in the iQlh Century ; History of Belgium ; Belgian Life in Town and Country ; &c. [ Statistics.

D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. r

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis — comprising The J Bach, J. S.;
Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical ] Beethoven.
works.

D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M:A. , Baalbek'

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Barca- '
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899 and J r / /. ,N

1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, ] Belrut W* Part)',
1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. [ Bengazi.

D. H. DAVID HANNAY. f Austrian Succession War:

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, J Naval;
1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. 1 Avil6s; Bainbridge, William;

I Barbary Pirates.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Vll

D. Mn.
D. S. M.*

D. S.-S.

E. B.
E. Br.

E. CI.

E. C. B.
E.F.S.

E. G.
E. G. B.

E. H. H.

Ed. M.
E. Ma.
E. M. T.

E. N. S.
E. Pr.

E. Tn.
E.V.

F. C. B.

F. C. C.

REV. PUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. f

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London •{ Berry, Charles Albert.
Missionary Society. I

DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.LITT. r

Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford; Fellow of New College. Author of Arabic J ATII_
Papyri of the Bodleian Library ; Mohammed and the Rise of Islam ; Cairo, Jerusalem ] A*um-

and Damascus.

DAVID SETH-SMITH, F.Z.S.

Curator of Birds to the Zoological^ Society of London.
Avicultural Society.
kept in Captivity.

EDWARD BRECK, PH.D.

Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New York Herald and the New York Times.
Author of Wilderness Pets.

Formerly President of the J »„•
Author of Parrakeets, a Practical Handbook to those Species ] AVlary-

I

ERNEST BARKER, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Oxford,
of Merton College. Craven Scholar (Oxford), 1895.

Formerly Fellow and Tutor

EDWARD CLODD.

Vice- President of the Folk-Lore Society. Author of Story of Primitive Man;
Primer of Evolution; Tom Tit Tot; Animism; Pioneers of Evolution

Base-Ball.

Baldwin I. to IV. of
Jerusalem.

Baer.

RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Lnr. (Dubl.).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.

f Basilian Monks;
I Benedict of Nursia;
I Benedictines;
[St Bernardin of Siena.

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.

See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.

EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. /-

Assistant-Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of D

Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects: Joint-editor •{ Bearusley, Aubrey Vincent.
of Bell's " Cathedral "Series.

Baggesen; Ballade;

Barnfleld;

Beaumont, Sir John;

Belgium: Literature;
I Biography.

EDWARD GRANVILLE BROWNE, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.R.A.S. r

Sir Thomas Adams's Professor of Arabic and Fellow of Pembroke College, Cam-
bridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of A Traveller's Narrative, J Babiism.
written to Illustrate the Episode of the Bab; The New History of Mirzd AH Muhammed \
the Bab; Literary History of Persia; &c. |_

ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. r

Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, •< Bastarnae.
Cambridge. University Lecturer in Palaeography.

EDUARD MEYER, D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D., PH.D. f Bactria; Bagoas;

Professor of Ancient History in..the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des -I Bahrain; Balash;
Alterthums ; Geschichte des alien Agyptens ; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme ; &c. I Behistun

EDWARD MANSON.

°f C°mparative Lesislation' Author of Bankruptcy:

Autographs.

SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Lirr.D.

Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1888-1909. Fellow of the British
Academy. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France and of the Royal
Prussian Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeo-
graphy. Editor of the Chronicon Angliae, &c. Joint-editor of Publications of the
Palaeographical Society.

E. N. STOCKLEY. (

Captain, Royal Engineers. Instructor in Construction at the School of Military J
Engineering, Chatham. For some time in charge of the Barracks Design Branch of 1
the War Office. I

EDGAR PRESTAGE. f

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- J Azurara;
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal | Barros.
Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society. I

REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON, S.J. (d. 1907).

Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict ; History of the Jesuits in England. \
REV. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A., D.D. (1819-1895).

Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England.

FRANCIS CRAWFORD BURKITT, M.A., D.D.

Norrisian Professor of Divinity, Cambridge.

(*» part)-

Fellow of the British Academy.

y.
Part-editor Lof The Four Gospels in Syriac transcribed from the SinaiticJ. BiWe: «<* Testament, Higher

Criticism.

.

Palimpsest. Author of The Gospel History and its Transmission; Early Eastern }
Christianity; &c.

FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen).

Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. - Baptism.
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c.

viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

F. G. FREDERICK GREENWOOD. -iBeaconsfleld, Earl of.

See the biographical article: GREENWOOD, FREDERICK.

F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. -fBernicia.

Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. \.

F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A.

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeo- I geg
logical Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of the Imperial German |
Archaeological Institute.

F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. 4 Bauchi.

See the biographical article : LUGARD, SIR F. J. D.

F. P. FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (d. 1910). J . , ,. .„ .

Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Studies in Psychical Research; Modern 1 Automatic Writing.
Spiritualism; &c.

rBasutoland (in part) ;

F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. J Bahr-el-Ghazal (in part) ;

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. iBechuanaland (in part).

F. R. M. FRANCIS RICHARD MAUNSELL, C.M.G.

Lieut.-Col., Royal Artillery. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurd- J BaiDurt;
istan), 1897-1898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. | Bashkala.
Author of Central Kurdistan; &c.

F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. fAventurine;

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S., D.Sc., Pn.D. f Axolotl;

In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British "i Ratrachja
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.

G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D. D.Lrrr. (Dublin). r

Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873—1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of Bengali*
India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the 4 - '

Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The
Languages of India ; &c.

G. B. B. GERARD BALDWIN BROWN, M.A. J

Professor of Fine Arts, University of Edinburgh. Formerly Fellow of Brasenose ] Basilica (in part).
College, Oxford. Author of From Schola to Cathedral; The Fine Arts; &c. l

G. B. G.* GEORGE BUCHANAN GRAY, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.). [Bible: Old Testament,

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Mansfield College, Oxford. J Textual Criticism, and
Examiner in Hebrew, University of Wales. Author of The Divine Discipline of 1 Hieher Criticism
Israel ; &c.

G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S.

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. J Belgium: History.
Hon. Member Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa-
tion of Literature.

G. F. Z. G. F. ZIMMER, A.M.Inst.C.E.

Author of Mechanical Handling of Material.

G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f

Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The Days \ BarbOUT, John.
of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c.

G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. [

Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. President of the J Bee.
Association of Economic Biologists. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Author 1
of Insects: their Structure and Life ; &c. I

G. Sa. GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.Litt. J_

See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, G. E. B. Balzac, H. fle.

| Avempaee; Averroes;
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. Avicenna; BaidawT;

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old \ Baladhurl; BehS ud-Din;
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Beha ud-DIn Zuhair

[BTrunl.
H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. r

Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British Academy. \ Beowulf
Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c. [

H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of ] Balfour, A. J.
the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the loth edition.

H. C. R. SIR HENRY CRESWICKE RAWLINSON, BART., K.C.B. fD „.

See the biographical article: RAWLINSON, SIR H. C. ^Bagdad: City.

H. Fr. HENRI FRANTZ.

[RI rRANTZ. Barve* Bastion-Lepage*

Art Critic, Gazette des Beaux Arts (Paris). \Baudry, P. J. A.

H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. c

Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge \ Bird.
Author of Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

IX

H. H. H.*

H. H. J.
H. H. R.

H. M. W.

H. N. D.
H. W. C. D.

H. W. S.
LA.

J. An.

J. A. H.

J. B. B.
J. D. B.
J. F.-K.

J. F. St.

J. H. R.
J. HI. R.

J. M. M.

J. P.-B.
J. G. Sc.

J. P. E.

HERBERT HENSLEY HENSON. M.A., D.D.

Canon of Westminster Abbey and Rector of St Margaret's, Westminster. Proctor

in Convocation since 1902. Formerly Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Select J Bible English • Revised Ver-

Preacher (Oxford), 1895-1896; (Cambridge), 1901. Author of Apostolic Christianity; ]

Moral Discipline in the Christian Church ; The National Church ; Christ and the Nation ;

&c.

SIR HARRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, D.Sc., G.C.M.G., K.C.B.
See the biographical article: JOHNSTON, SIR H. H.

Bantu Languages.

HDGH MDNRO Ross.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford.
Supplement. Author of British Railways.

Editor of The Times Engineering 1 Bell: House Bell.

H. MARSHALL WARD, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc. (d. 1905).

Formerly Professor of Botany, Cambridge. President of the British Mycological
Society. Author of Timber and some of its Diseases; The Oak; Sack's Lectures on
the Physiology of Plants; Grasses; Disease in Plants; &c.

HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.G.S. [

Professor of Geography, University College, Reading. Author of Elementary i Baltic Sea.
Meteorology; Papers on Oceanography; &c.

Bacteriology (in part);
Berkeley, Miles Joseph.

HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls', Oxford, 1895- 'i

1902. Author of Charlemagne; England under the Normans and Angevins, 1066-1272. L ADuas.

I Becket;

H. WICKHAM STEED.

Correspondent of The Times at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna.

ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.

Reader in . Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President,
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera-
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; &c. L

JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D. r

Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh, and Assistant Secretary
of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Honorary Professor of Antiquities to •< Barrow.
the Royal Scottish Academy. Author of Scotland in Early Christian and Pagan
Times.

• Austria-Hungary: History (in

part);
Bertani.

Bahya Ibn Paquda.

JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc.

Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London.

JOHN BAGNELL BURY, LL.D., LITT.D.

See the biographical article: BURY, J. B.

( Avonian; Bajocian;
J Barton Beds;
| Bathonian Series;
I Bed: Geology.

f Baldwin I. and II.:

I of Romania;

I Basil I. and II.: Emperors;

I Belisarius.

JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. [

King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J Balkan Peninsula
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria.

JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. f

Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Auala « Horrors-
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. \
Member of the Council of the Hispanic Society of America. Knight Commander of BeU°-
the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature.

JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A.

Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Aramaic.
Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.

JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).

Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and
Pedigree; &c.

Bible: Old Testament:
and Versions.

Baron; Baronet;
Battle Abbey Roll;
Bayeux Tapestry;
Beauchamp.

Texts

JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. r

Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Barras;

University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic ] Beauharnais Eugene de

Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c.

JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. (•„ . _. _ . /. .,.

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London-^ faC,° ,' "*ncis V". Part>'>
College (University of London). Joint editor of Grote's History of Greece. { Berkeley, George (in part).

JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST.
Editor of the Guardian (London).

/Bed: Furniture;

\ Berain.

SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. r

Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma, a \ Bhamo.
Handbook; The Upper Burma Gazetteer, &c.

JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. c

Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. I Bailiff: Bailli;
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit 1 Basoche.
fran^ais; &c.

x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.

Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew, Bagdad: Vilayet;
University of Pennsylvania. In charge of Expedition of University of Pennsylvania J Bagdad: City '
conducting excavations at Nippur, 1888-1895. Author of Scriptures, Hebrew and Basra
Christian; Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates; &c. I

J. R. P. SIR JOHN RAHERE PAGET, BART., K.C. f Bank, ,nd Rani,!,,.,.

Bencher of the Inner Temple. Formerly Gilbart Lecturer on Banking. Author of 4 Ba"KS ana canning.
The Law of Banking; &c. [ English Law.

J. Sm.* JOHN SMITH, C.B. f

Formerly Inspector-General in Companies' Liquidation, 1890-1904, and Inspector- H Bankruptcy.
General in Bankruptcy. L

J. S. P. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Basalt;
burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 Batholite.
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. I

J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY. J Baikal;

Joint author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical "j Bessarabia (in part)
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet, &c. I

J. YD. JULIEN VlNSON. [

Formerly Professor of Hindustani and Tamil at the Ecole des Langues Orientales, I Basques (in part).
Paris. Author of Le Basque et les langues mexicaines ; &c. L

J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews).

Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic 1 Barnabas.
Age;&c.

3. W. He. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. f Au,tria «„„„,„. rj^tnr.

Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly *US "a-»ungary. History ,
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at 1 Bamberger; Bebel;
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Benedetti; Beust.
Empire; &c.

K. L. REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. [ Bible: New Testament: Texts

Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J and Versions and Textual
ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testament ; \ r 't' '
The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ; &c.

f Bagpipe; Banjo;
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. J Barbiton; Barrel-organ;

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra. | Bass Clarinet; Basset Horn;

I Bassoon; Batyphone.

L. A. LYMAN ABBOTT, D.D. / Beecher, Henry Ward.

See the biographical article: ABBOTT, L. L

L. D.* Louis MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE. I" Benedict (I.-X.)

See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O. L

L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. C Autunite; Axinite;

Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Azurite; BaryteS'
Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. H par«tni>alpito- Pinvito-
Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. BarytocalClte, Bauxite,

L. V.* LUIGI VILLARI. r Azeglio; Bandiera, A. and E.;

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent I Bassi Ueo-
in East of Europe. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. "!' , . ' _.

I Bentivoglio, Giovanni.

L. W. K. LEONARD WILLIAM KING, M.A., F.S.A.

Assistant to the Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum.

Lecturer in Assyrian at King's College, London. Conducted Excavations at
Kuyunjik (Nineveh) for British Museum. Author of Assyrian Chrestomathy;
Annals of the Kings of Assyria; Studies in Eastern History; Babylonian Magic and
Sorcery ; &c.

Babylonia and Assyria:

Chronology.

M. A. C. MAURICE A. CANNEY, M.A. r

Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. Formerly J
Exhibitioner of St John's College, Oxford. Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew Scholar | Baur.
(Oxford), 1892; Kennicott Hebrew Scholar, 1895; Houghton Syriac Prize, 1896. (_

M. Br. MARGARET BRYANT. f Beaumont and Fletcher:

M. D. Ch. SIR MACKENZIE DALZELL CHALMERS, K.C.B., C.S.I., M.A.

Trinity College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Permanent Under- Secretary J Bill of Exchange
of State for Home Department. Author of Digest of the Law of Bills of Exchange ; &c. \

M. G. MOSES CASTER, PH.D. (Leipzig). r

Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic." and By- •{ Bassarab.
zantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. Author of A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira;
The Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle. I

M. H. C. MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, K.C., D.C.L. f

Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. President J „„,; _ «„
of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General Council 1 Berm8 Sea
of the Bar and of the Council of Legal Education, and Standing Counsel to the
University of Oxford.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi

***** «"»

M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D.

Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion •<

of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. Babylonian and Assyrian

Religion; Bel; Belit.
f Avaray; Bar-le-Duc;

M. P.* LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. Batarnay; Bauftremont;

Auxiliary of the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences), -s Beauharnais- Beauieu-
Author of L' Industrie du sel en Franche-Comte. Beauvillier '

Bellegarde: Family.

N. B. W. N. B. WAGLE. f

Formerly Lecturer on Sanskrit at the Robert Money Institution, Bombay. Vice- I
President of the London Indian Society. Author of Industrial Development of] Bhau Daji.
India; &c.

N. H. M. REV. NEWTON HERBERT MARSHALL., M.A., PH.D. (Halle). f

Minister of Heath Street Baptist Church, Hampstead, London. Author of Gegen- "j Baptists.
wartige Richtungen der Religionsphilosophie in England ; Theology and Truth.

N. M. NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. f Bardaisan;

Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Lecturer J Bar-Hebraeus;
in Aramaic. Examiner for the Oriental Languages Tripos and the Theological 1 Bar-SallbT.
Tripos at Cambridge.

N. V. JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS.

Member of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. Honorary Archivist at J Basel, Council Of;

the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Societe de 1'Histoire de France ] Benedict XIII. (anti-pope).

and of the Societe de 1'Ecole de Chartes.

N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WraTBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the -< Automatism.
Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and
Marriage in Australia; &c.

0. Ba. OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f Beard; Berkeley (Family);

Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. 1 Bill (Weapon).

0. Br. OSCAR BRIUANT. -| Austria-Hungary: Statistics.

0. He. OTTO HENKER, PH.D. f

On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany. •{ Binocular Instrument

P. A. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. f

Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. -\ AutO-da-F6.
Author of Les Idees morales chez les heterodoxes latines an debut du XIII' siecle.

P. A. A. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., Doc. JURIS. f j}avarja: Statistics-

New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History] TI.,I-_
of the English Constitution. I Berlm-

P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. f Baikal; Baku;

See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A. \ Bessarabia (in part).

P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.

Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- Biogenesis*
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.
Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Author of Outlines of
Biology; &c.

P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE. M.A. f _

Magdalen College, Oxford. \ Balfour, Sir James.

P. GI. PETER GILES, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. C

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. University J T»
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1
Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology; &c. I

P. S. PHILIP SCHIDROWITZ, PH.D., F.C.S. f

Member of Council, Institute of Brewing; Member of Committee of Society of J Beer.
Chemical Industry. Author of numerous articles on the Chemistry and Technology 1
of Brewing, Distilling, &c. L

R.A.* ROBERT ANCHEL j Billaud-Varenne.

Archivist of the Departement de 1 Eure. L

R. Ad. ROBERT ADAMSON, M.A., LL.D. [ Bacon, Francis;

See the biographical article: ADAMSON, ROBERT. Bacon, Roger; Beneke;

L Berkeley, Bishop.

R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. fBashan-

St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- •{ 5
tion Fund. Joint author of Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900. [ Betnlenem.

R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L., LITT.D. fD fc ,.,

See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. \ uaccnyiicies.

R. Gn. SIR ROBERT GIFFEN, F.R.S. j Bagehot;

See the biographical article: GIFFEN, SIR R. "i Balance of Trade.

R. H. C. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., LITT.D. (Oxon.).

Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British

Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity College, Dublin. Author and \ Baruch.

Editor of Book of Enoch; Book of Jubilees; Apocalypse of Baruch; Assumption of

Moses ; A scension of Isaiah ; Testaments of XII. Patriarchs ; &c.

Xll

B. H. I. P.

R. J. H.
R. L.*

R. L. S.
R. M.*

R. N. B.

S. A. C.

S. C.
S. R. D.
T. A. J.

T. As.

T. A. I.

T. Ba.

T. E. H.

T. G. C.
T. H. D.

T. H. H.
T. H. H.*

T. L. P.
T. 0.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS PALGRAVE, F.R.S. f Ban. , B,_v,__

Director of Barclay & Co., Ltd., Bankers. Editor of the Economist, 1871-1883. J B»nKs and BanKing:
Author of Notes on Banking in Great Britain and Ireland, Sweden, Denmark and I General.
Hamburg ; &c. Editor of Dictionary of Political Economy.

Formerly Editor of the St James's] Beresford, John.

RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A.

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
Gazette (London).

RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Avahi; Aye-Aye;

Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, J Babirusa;
1874-1882. Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British } D.J,,....,.
Museum; The Deer of all Lands; &c.

ROBERT Louis STEVENSON.
See the biographical article:

STEVENSON, R. L. B.

J;

li

| Beranger.

ROBERT MUIR, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.).

Professor of Pathology, University of Glasgow. Professor of Pathology at St
Andrews, 1898-1899. Author of Manual of Bacteriology; &c.

ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, .
1613-1723 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460
to 1796; Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire; Gustavus III. and
his Contemporaries; The Pupils of Peter the Great; &c.

STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. r

Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer and formerly Fellow, Gonville]
and Caius College. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses ~)
and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; &c.

SIDNEY COLVIN, M.A., Lrrr.D. J

See the biographical article : COLVIN, SIDNEY. 1

SAMUEL ROLLES DRIVER, D.D., LITT.D.

See the biographical article: DRIVER, S. R.

THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A.

Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum.
Anthropological Institute.

Bacteriology: Pathological
Aspects.

Bakocz; Balassa; Banff y;
Bar, Confederation of;
Baross; Basil;
Bathory; Batthyany;
Bela HI. and IV.; Bern;
Beothy; Bernstorff;
Bestuzhe v-Ry umin ;
Bethlen; Bezborodko; Biren.

Baal;
Benjamin.

Baldovinetti;
Bellini.

Bible: Old Testament: Canon
and Chronology.

Hon. Sec., Royal 1 Bechuana.

THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.), F.S.A.

Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow (Oxford). Corresponding Member of the Imperial
German Archaeological Institute. Author of the Classical Topography of the Roman
Campagna; &c.

THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.

SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.

Auximum; Avella;

Avellino; Avernus; Baiae;

Bari; Barletta; Bassano;

Belluno; Benevento;

Bergamo; Bertinoro.
/Bailiff; Bill
I Bill of Sale.

Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of J
the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of]

International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.

THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D. r

Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Formerly •
Professor of International Law in the University of Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's J Bentham Jeremy.
Inn. Author of Studies in International Law; The Elements of Jurisprudence; \
Alberici Gentilis de jure belli; The Laws of War on Land; Neutral Duties in a Mari-
time War; &c.

THOMAS G. CARVER, M.A., K.C. (d. 1906). r

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge. 8th Wrangler, 1871. Author of J Av«rair«

On the Law Relating to the Carriage of Goods by Sea. [ A

REV. THOMAS HERBERT DARLOW, M.A. f

Literary Superintendent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Sometime
Scholar of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of Historical Catalogue of Printed '
Editions of Holy Scriptures (vol. i. with H. G. Moule) ; &c.

Bible Societies.

THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, F.R.S.

See the biographical article: HUXLEY, THOMAS H.

SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S.

Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H. M. Commissioner for the Persa-
Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c.

REV. THOMAS LESLIE PAPILLON, M.A.

Hon. Canon of St Albans. Formerly Fellow, Dean and Tutor of New College,
Oxford. Fellow of Merton College. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology; &c.

THOMAS OKEY.

Examiner in Basket Work for the City of London Guilds and Institute.

-{ Biology (in part).

Badakshan;
Bahrein Islands;
Bajour; Balkh;
Baluchistan; Barman;
Bela; Bhutan.

Bell.

Basket.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS TO ARTICLES

xiu

T. W. R. D.

V. H. B.
W. A. B. C.

W. A. G.

W. A. P.

W. Bo.

W. B. Ca.
W. C. P.

W. E. D.

W. E. G.
W. H. Be.

W. H. Ha.

W. J. H.*
W. L. D.

W. M. S.

W. P. C.
W. P. J.

W. P. R.

W. R. L.

W. Sa.

T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, M.A., LL.D., PH.D.

Professor of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester. Formerly
Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London. Fellow of-
the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-
1902. Author of Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; &c.

Bharahat.

VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.Sc.

Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds.
College, Cambridge.

Formerly Fellow of St John's \ Bacteriology: Botany.

REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880^-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature
and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889.

Baden: Switzerland;
Barcelonnette; Basel;
Basses-Alpes; Beaulie'j;
Bellinzona; Bern; Bienne.

WALTER ARMSTRONG GRAHAM. r

His Siamese Majesty's Resident Commissioner for the Siamese Malay State of
Kelantan. Commander, Order of the White Elephant. Member of the Burma i Bangkok.
Civil Service, 1889-1903. Author of The French Roman Catholic Mission in Siam;
Kelantan, a Handbook ; &c. L

WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; The War of Creek Independence; &c.

Austria-Hungary: History

(in part) ;

Babeuf; Balance of Power;
Baron; Bates;

Bavaria: History; Beguines;
Berlin: Congress and Treaty of;
Bernard, St; Biretta.

WlLHELM BOUSSET, D.TH. f

Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen. Author of -{ Basilides.
Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; &c.

W. BROUGHTON CARR.

Formerly Editor of the British Bee Journal and the Bee-Keepers' Record.

Bee: Bee-keeping.

WILLIAM CHARLES POPPLEWELL, M.Sc., A.M.I.C.E.

Lecturer in Engineering in Manchester School of Technology (University of Man- -\ Bellows and Blowing Machines.
Chester). Author of Compressed Air; Heat Engines; &c.

WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M.E. r

Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds of London
Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Associate Member of the 1 Bearings.
Institute of Naval Architects. Author of The Balancing of Engines; Valves and
Valve Gear Mechanisms ; &c. L

SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. ("

Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, \ Bahr-el-Ghazal (in part).
Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908.

WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr. (Cantab.). (

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. I Balaam;
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 R«niTphiih
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &C|

WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., Mus.Doc. ("

Principal, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of J - .
Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor 1 D a'
Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music ; &c.

WILLIAM JAMES HUGHAN.

Past Senior Grand Deacon of Freemasons of England, 1874.
of Grand Lodges of Egypt, Quebec and lona, &c.

WILLIAM LESLIE DAVIDSON, LL.D.

T

Hon. Senior Warden \ Banker-Marks.

L

LIAM LESLIE DAVIDSON, LL.D. r

Professor of Logic and Metaphysics, Aberdeen University. Author of The Loeic of\ Rain Alnxanifar

Definition; Christian Ethics; &c. Editor of Alexander Bain's Autobiography. \

to George
of Life of

Bancroft, George.

/Bath, William Pulteney,
\ Marquess of.

High Bailiff of County Courts, -| Barrie, J. M.

WILLIAM MILLIGAN SLOANE, PH.D., LL.D.

Professor of History, Columbia University, New York. Secretary
Bancroft while American Ambassador in Berlin, 1872-1875. Author
Napoleon Bonaparte.

WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY.

See the article: COURTNEY, L. H., BARON.

WILLIAM PRICE JAMES.

University College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
Cardiff. Author of Romantic Professions ; &c.

HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. r

Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner J D „

for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour and Justice New 1 Bauance»

Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud, a History of New Zealand ; &c. L

W. R. LETHABY, F.S.A.

Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council. \ Baotisterv
Author of Architecture, Mysticism and Myth; &c.

WILLIAM SANDAY, D.D., LL.D., LITT.D.

Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity, and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford. Chap-

^w^^t^is^ a±frf?s»<^eawsa i Biwe: «- T"tament: ca™>

Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans ; &c.

XIV
W. T. Ca.

W. T. T. D.

W. W.

w.We.
w. Wr.

W.R.S.
W. W. E.*

INITIALS AND HEADINGS TO ARTICLES

WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S. f

Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington, -s Barnacle.
Author of " Crustacea " in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
SIR WILLIAM TURNER THISELTON-DYER, F.R.S., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., D.Sc. LL.D., r

PH.D., F.L.S.

Hon. Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, J Rentham Georee
1885-1905. Botanical Adviser to Secretary of State for Colonies, 1902-1906.
Joint-author of Flora of Middlesex. Editor of Flora Capenses and Flora of Tropical
Africa.

f Averroes;
I Avicenna.

WILLIAM WALLACE, M.A.

See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).

REV. WENTWORTH WEBSTER (d. 1906).
Author of Basque Legends; &c.

/Basque Provinces;
I Basques.

WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D.

Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congre- -\ Bacon, Leonard.
gational Churches in the United States ; The Reformation ; John Calvin ; Sac.

W. ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.

See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.

Baal.

WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, PH.D. ("

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. -^ Benedict XI., XII., XIII., XIV.

Author of Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen. I

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Azo Compounds.

Azoimide.

Azores.

Baader, F. X.

Baber.

Baby-Farming.

Bachelor.

Backgammon.

Baden: Grand Duchy.

Badger.

Badminton.

Bagatelle.

Bahamas.

Balaklava.

Bale, John.

Baliol.

Ballet.

Ballot

Balneotherapeutics.

Bamboo.

Ban.

Banana.

Bank-notes.

Barbados.

Barbarossa.

Barbed Wire.

Barcelona.

Barclay, Alexander.

Barere de Vieuzac.

Barium.

Barlaam and Josaphat.

Barlay.

Barnes, William.
Barometer.
Barrister.
Barrow, Isaac.
Bastiat, F.
Bastille.
Baths.
Battery.
Baudelaire.
Bautzen.
Baxter, Richard.
Bayard, P. T.
Bazaine.
Bean.
Bear.

Bear - Baiting and Bull-
Baiting.
Beaton.

Beaufort: Family.
Beaufort, Henry.
Beaumarchais.
Beaumont: Family.
Becher.

Beddoes, Thomas Lovell.
Bedford, Earls and Dukes of.
Bedfordshire.
Bedouins.
Beecher, Lyman.
Behar.
Beheading.
Bejart.
Belfast: Ireland.

Belfort: Town.
Bell, Sir Charles.
Belladonna.
Bellarmine.
Bellary.

Belle-Isle, C. L. A. F., Due de.
Benares.
Benedek.
Benediction.
Benefice.
Benevolence.
Bengal.
Bengel.
Benin.

Benjamin (Judah Philip).
Benson (Archbishop of Canter-
bury).

Bentley, Richard.
Benton.
Benzaldehyde.
Benzene.
Benzoic Acid.
Berar.
Berbers.
Berengarius.
Beresford, Lord Charles.
Beresford, Viscount.
Bergen.
Beri-Beri.
Berkshire.
Berlioz.
Bermondsey.

Bermudas.

Bernhardt, Sarah.

Bermouth.

Berthelob.

Berwick (Duke of).

Berwickshire.

Berwick-upon-Tweed.

Beryllium.

Besancon.

Bessemer, Sir Henry.

Bet and Betting.

Betrothal.

Beyle.

Bezique.

Bhagalpur.

Bible Christians.

Bichromates and Chromates.

Bidder.

Bigamy.

Bijapur.

Bikanir.

Bilaspur.

Bilbao.

Billiards.

Binomial.

Birch.

Birkenhead.

Birmingham.

Birney, James G.

Biron, Armand de Gontaut.

Birth.

Biscay (Vizcaya).

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME III

AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unler
der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns "), an archduchy and
crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Hungary, N. by Bohemia
and Moravia, W. by Bohemia and Upper Austria, and S. by
Styria. It has an area of 7654 sq. m. and is divided into two
parts by the Danube, which enters at its most westerly point,
and leaves it at its eastern extremity, near Pressburg. North
of this line is the low hilly country, known as the Waldviertel,
which lies at the foot and forms the continuation of the Bohemian
and Moravian plateau. Towards the W. it attains in the Weins-
berger Wald, of which the highest point is the Peilstein, an altitude
of 3478 ft., and descends towards the valley of the Danube
through the Gfohler Wald (2368 ft.) and the Manhartsgebirge
(1758 ft.). Its most south-easterly offshoots are formed by the
Bisamberg (1180 ft.), near Vienna, just opposite the Kahlenberg.
The southern division of the province is, in the main, mountainous
and hilly, and is occupied by the Lower Austrian Alps and their
offshoots. The principal groups are: the Voralpe (5802 ft.), the
Diirrenstein (6156 ft.), the Otscher (6205 ft.), the Raxalpe
(6589 ft.) and the Schneeberg (6806 ft.), which is the highest
summit in the whole province. To the E. of the famous ridge
of Semmering are the groups of the Wechsel (5700 ft.) and the
Leithagebirge (1674 ft.). The offshoots of the Alpine group
are formed by the Wiener Wald, which attains an altitude of
2929 ft. in the Schopfl and ends N.W. of Vienna in the Kahlen-
berg (1404 ft.) and Leopoldsberg (1380 ft.).

Lower Austria belongs to the watershed of the Danube, which
with the exception of the Lainsitz, which is a tributary of the
Moldau, receives all the other rivers of the province. Its principal
affluents on the right are: the Enns, Ybbs, Erlauf, Pielach,
Traisen, Wien, Schwechat, Fischa and Leitha; on the left the
Isper, Krems, Kamp, Gollersau and the March. Besides the

Danube, only the Enns and the March are navigable rivers.
Amongst the small Alpine lakes, the Erlaufsee and the Lunzer
See are worth mentioning. Of its mineral springs, the best
known are the sulphur springs of Baden, the iodine springs of
Deutsch-Altenburg, the iron springs of Pyrawarth, and the
thermal springs of VOSLAU. In general the climate, which varies
with the configuration of the surface, is moderate and healthy,
although subject to rapid changes of temperature. Although
43 -4 % of the total area is arable land, the soil is only of moderate
fertility and does not satisfy the wants of this thickly-populated
province. Woods occupy 34-2%, gardens and meadows 13-1%
and pastures 3-2%. Vineyards occupy 2% of the total area
and produce a good wine, specially those on the sunny slopes
of the Wiener Wald. Cattle-rearing is not well developed, but
game and fish are plentiful. Mining is only of slight importance,
small quantities of coal and iron-ore being extracted in the
Alpine foothill region; graphite is found near Muhldorf. From
an industrial point of view, Lower Austria stands, together with
Bohemia and Moravia, in the front rank amongst the Austrian
provinces. The centre of its great industrial activity is the
capital, Vienna (<?.».) ; but in the region of the Wiener Wald
up to the Semmering, owing to its many waters, which can be
transformed into motive power, many factories are spread. The
principal industries are, the metallurgic and textile industries in
all their branches, milling, brewing and chemicals; paper,
leather and silk; cloth, objets de luxe and millinery; physical
and musical instruments; sugar, tobacco factories and food-
stuffs. The very extensive commerce of the province has also
its centre in Vienna. The population of Lower Austria in 1900
was 3,100,493, which corresponds to 405 inhabitants per sq. m.
It is, therefore, the most densely populated province of Austria.
According to the language in common use, 93 % of the population

rn. i

AUSTRIA, UPPER— AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

was German, 4-66 % was Czech, and the remainder was composec
of Poles, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Croatians and Italians. According
to religion 92-47 % of the inhabitants were Roman Catholics
5-07% were Jews; 2-11% were Protestants and the remainder
belonged to the Greek church. In the matter of education,
Lower Austria is one of the most advanced provinces of Austria,
and 99-8% of the children of school-going age attended school
regularly in 1900. The local diet is composed of 78 members,
of which the archbishop of Vienna, the bishop of St Polten and
the rector of the Vienna University are members ex officio.
Lower Austria sends 64 members to the Imperial Reichsrat at
Vienna. For administrative purposes, the province is divided
into 22 districts and three towns with autonomous munici-
palities: Vienna (1,662,269), the capital (since 1905 including
Floridsdorf, 36,590), Wiener-Neustadt (28,438) and Waidhofen
on the Ybbs (4447). Other principal towns are: Baden(i2,447),
Bruck on the Leitha (5134), Schwechat (8241), Korneuburg
(8298), Stokerau (10,213), Krems (12,657), Modling (15,304),
Reichenau (7457), Neunkirchen (10,831), St Polten (14,510^
and Klosterneuburg (11,595).

The original archduchy, which included Upper Austria, is the
nucleus of the Austrian empire, and the oldest possession of
the house of Habsburg in its present dominions.

See F. Umlauft, Das Erzherzogtum Osterreich unter der Enns,
vol. i. of the collection Die Lander Osterreich- Ungarns in Wort und
Bild (Vienna, 1881-1889, 15 vols.); Die osterreichisch-ungarische
Monarchic in Wort und Bild, vol. 4 (Vienna, 1886-1902, 24 vols.) ;
M. Vansca, Gesch. Nieder- u. Ober-Osterreichs (in Heeren's Staaten-
gesch., Gotha, 1905).

AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der
Enns, " Austria above the river Enns "), an archduchy and
crown-land of Austria, bounded N. by Bohemia, W. by Bavaria,
S. by Salzburg and Styria, and E. by Lower Austria. It has an
area of 4631 sq. m. Upper Austria is divided by the Danube
into two unequal parts. Its smaller northern part is a prolonga-
tion of the southern angle of the Bohemian forest and contains
as culminating points the Plocklstein (45 10 f t.) and the Sternstein
(3690 ft.). The 'southern part belongs to the region of the
Eastern Alps, containing the Salzkammergut and Upper Austrian
Alps, which are found principally in the district of Salzkammergut
(q.v.). To the north of these mountains, stretching towards the
Danube, is the Alpine foothill region, composed partly of terraces
and partly of swelling undulations, of which the most important
is the Hausruckwald. This is a wooded chain of mountains,
with many branches, rich in brown coal and culminating in the
Goblberg (2950 ft.). Upper Austria belongs to the watershed
of the Danube, which flows through it from west to east, and
receives here on the right the Inn with the Salzach, the Traun,
the Enns with the Steyr and on its left the Great and Little Miihl
rivers. The Schwarzenberg canal between the Great Miihl and
the Moldau establishes a direct navigable route between the
Danube and the Elbe. The climate of Upper Austria, which
varies according to the altitude, is on the whole moderate; it is
somewhat severe in the north, but is mild in Salzkammergut.
The population of the duchy in 1900 was 809,918, which is
equivalent to 174-8 inhabitants per sq. m. It has the greatest
density of population of any of the Alpine provinces. The
inhabitants are almost exclusively of German stock and Roman
Catholics. For administrative purposes, Upper Austria is
divided into two autonomous municipalities, Linz (58,778) the
capital, and Steyr (17,592) and 12 districts. Other principal
towns are Wels (12,187), Ischl (9646) and Gmunden (7126). The
local diet, of which the bishop of Linz is a member ex officio, is
composed of 50 members and the duchy sends 22 members to
the Reichsrat at Vienna. The soil in the valleys and on the
lower slopes of the hills is fertile, indeed 35-08% of the whole
area is arable. Agriculture is well developed and relatively
large quantities of the principal cereals are produced. Upper
Austria has the largest proportion of meadows in all Austria,
18-54%, while 2-49% is lowland and Alpine pasturage. Of the
remainder, woods occupy 34-02 %, gardens 1-99 % and 4-93 % is
unproductive. Cattle-breeding is also in a very advanced stage
and together with the timber-trade forms a considerable resource

of the province. The principal mineral wealth of Upper Austria
is salt, of which it extracts nearly 50% of the total Austrian
production. Other important products are lignite, gypsum and
a variety of valuable stones and clays. There are about thirty
mineral springs, the best known being the salt baths of Ischl
and the iodine waters at Hall. The principal industries are the
iron and metal manufactures, chiefly centred at Steyr. Next in
importance are the machine, linen, cotton and paper manu-
factures, the milling, brewing and distilling industries and
shipbuilding. The principal articles of export are salt, stone,
timber, live-stock, woollen and iron wares and paper.

See Edlbacher, Landeskunde von Oberosterreich (Linz, 2nd ed.,
1883) ; Vansca, op. cit. in the preceding article.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, or the AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY
(Ger. Osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic or Osterreichisch-
ungarisches Reich), the official name of a country situated in
central Europe, bounded E. by Russia and Rumania, S. by
Rumania, Servia, Turkey and Montenegro, W. by the Adriatic
Sea, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and the German Empire,
and N. by the German Empire and Russia. It occupies about
the sixteenth part of the total area of Europe, with an area (1905)
of 239,977 sq. m. The monarchy consists of two independent
states: the kingdoms and lands represented in the council of
the empire (Reichsrat), unofficially called Austria (q.v.) or
Cisleithania; and the " lands of St Stephen's Crown," un-
officially called Hungary (q.v.) or Transleithania. It received
its actual name by the diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I.
of the i4th of November 1868, replacing the name of the Austrian
Empire under which the dominions under his sceptre were
formerly known. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy is very
often called unofficially the Dual Monarchy. It had in 1901 a
population of 45,405,267 inhabitants, comprising therefore
within its borders, about one-eighth of the total population of
Europe. By the Berlin Treaty of 1878 the principalities of
Bosnia and Herzegovina with an area of 19,702 sq. m., and a
population (1895) of 1,591,036 inhabitants, owning Turkey as
suzerain, were placed under the administration of Austria-
Hungary, and their annexation in 1908 was recognized by the
Powers in 1909, so that they became part of the dominions
of the monarchy.

Government. — Thepresent constitution of the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy (see AUSTRIA) is based on the Pragmatic Sanction of
the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the igth of April
1713, whereby the succession to the throne is settled in the
dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine, descending by right of primo-
geniture and lineal succession to male heirs, and, in case of their
extinction, to the female line, and whereby the indissolubility
and indivisibility of the monarchy are determined; is based,
further, on the diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the
20th of October 1860, whereby the constitutional form of
government is introduced; and, lastly, on the so-called Ausgleich
or "Compromise," concluded on the 8th of February 1867,
whereby the relations between Austria and Hungary were
regulated.

The two separate states — Austria and Hungary — are com-
pletely independent of each other, and each has its own parlia-
ment and its own government. The unity of the monarchy is
expressed in the common head of the state, who bears the title
Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary, and in the
common administration of a series of affairs, which affect both
halves of the Dual Monarchy. These are: (i) foreign affairs,
including diplomatic and consular representation abroad;
(2) the army, including the navy, but excluding the annual
voting of recruits, and the special army of each state; (3) finance
in so far as it concerns joint expenditure.

For the administration of these common affairs there are
three joint ministries: the ministry of foreign affairs and of the
mperial and royal house, the ministry of war, and the ministry
of finance. It must be noted that the authority of the joint
ministers is restricted to common affairs, and that they are
not allowed to direct or exercise any influence on affairs of govern-
ment affecting separately one of the halves of the monarchy.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

The minister of foreign affairs conducts the international rela-
tions of the Dual Monarchy, and can conclude international
treaties. But commercial treaties, and such state treaties as
impose burdens on the state, or parts of the state, or involve
a change of territory, require the parliamentary assent of both
states. The minister of war is the head for the administration of
all military affairs, except those of the Austrian Landwehr and of
the Hungarian Honveds, which are committed to the ministries
for national defence of the two respective states. But the
supreme command of the army is vested in the monarch, who
has the power to take all measures regarding the whole army.
It follows, therefore, that the total armed power of the Dual
Monarchy forms a whole under the supreme command of the
sovereign. The minister of finance has charge of the finances of
common affairs, prepares the joint budget, and administers the
joint state debt. (Till 1909 the provinces of Bosnia and Herze-
govina were also administered by the joint minister of finance,
excepting matters exclusively dependent on the minister of war.)
For the control of the common finances, there is appointed a
joint supreme court of accounts, which audits the accounts of
the joint ministries.

Budget. — Side by side with the budget of each state of the Dual
Monarchy, there is a common budget, which comprises the expendi-
ture necessary for the common affairs, namely for the conduct of
foreign affairs, for the army, and for the ministry of finance. The
revenues of the joint budget consist of the revenues of the joint
ministries, the net proceeds of the customs, and the quota, or the
proportional contributions of the two states. This quota is fixed
for a period of years, and generally coincides with the duration of
the customs and commercial treaty. Until 1897 Austria contri-
buted 70 %, and Hungary 30 % of the joint expenditure, remaining
after deduction of the common revenue. It was then decided that
from 1897 to July 1907 the quota should be 66J5 for Austria, and
33A for Hungary. In 1907 Hungary's contribution was raised to
36-4%. Of the total charges 2 % is first of all debited to Hungary
on account of the incorporation with this state of the former military
frontier.

The Budget estimates for the common administration were as
follows in 1905: —

Revenue —

Mjnjstry of Foreign Affairs .... £21,167

Ministry of War 305,907

Ministry of Finance 4,870

Board of Control 18

The Customs 4,780,000

Proportional contributions 15,650,448

Total . . £20,762,410
Expenditure —

Ministry of Foreign Affairs .... £485,480
Ministry of War: —

Army 12,679,160

Navy 2,306,100

Ministry of Finance 177,000

Board of Control 13,250

Extraordinary Military Expenditure . . . 4,785,500

Extraordinary Military Expenditure in Bosnia 315,920

Total . . £20,762.410

The following table gives in thousands sterling the joint budget
for the years 1875-1905 : —

Expenditure.

| Debt. — Besides the debts of each state of the Dual Monarchy,
there is a general debt, which is borne jointly by Austria and Hun-
gary. The following table gives in millions sterling the amount of
the general debt for the years 1875-1905: —

1875-

1885.

1895.

1900.

1905-

232-41

231-02

229-67

226-81

224-31

I875-

1885.

I895-

1900.

1905-

Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Ministry of War (Army and

396

368-7

333

433-4

493-8

Navy)
Ministry of Finance
Supreme Court of Accounts .

9005-4
154-2
10-5

10,085
167-2
10-6

12-539
170-4
10-7

13,887-5
175

12-5

18,087-7
177-1
13-3

Total

9566-1

10,631-5

13.053-1

14,508-4

20,430-3

Revenue.

For the above Departments .
Customs

432

OQ7-J.

258-2

AQ2-2

260-7

260-3

331-9

Proportional Contributions .

8136-7

9971-1

8316-4

9045-8

5.650-4

Total

9566-1

10,631-5

13.053-1

14.508-4

20.430-3

Delegations. — The constitutional right of voting money
applicable to the common affairs and of its political control
is exercised by the Delegations, which consist each of sixty
members, chosen for one year, one-third of them by the Austrian
Herrenhaus (Upper House) and the Hungarian Table of Magnates
(Upper House), and two-thirds -of them by the Austrian and the
Hungarian Houses of Representatives. The delegations are
annually summoned by the monarch alternately to Vienna and
to Budapest. Each delegation has its separate sittings, both
alike public. Their decisions are reciprocally communicated
in writing, and, in case of non-agreement, their deliberations
are renewed. Should three such interchanges be made without
agreement, a common plenary sitting is held of an equal number
of both delegations; and these collectively, without discussion,
decide the question by common vote. The common decisions
of both houses require for their validity the sanction of the
monarch. Each delegation has the right to formulate resolutions
independently, and to call to account and arraign the common
ministers. In the exercise of their office the members of both
delegations are irresponsible, enjoying constitutional immunity.

Army. — The military system of the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy is similar in both states, and rests since 1868 upon the
principle of the universal and personal obligation of the citizen
to bear arms. Its military force is composed of the common
army (K. und K.); the special armies, namely the Austrian
(K.K.) Landwehr, and the Hungarian Honveds, which are
separate national institutions, and the Landsturm or levy-in-
mass. As stated above, the common army stands under the
administration of the joint minister of war, while the special
armies are under the administration of the respective ministries
of national defence. The yearly contingent of recruits for the
army is fixed by the military bills voted by the Austrian and
Hungarian parliaments, and is generally determined on the
basis of the population, according to the last census returns.
It amounted in 1905 to 103,100 men, of which Austria furnished
59,211 men, and Hungary 43,889. Besides 10,000 men are
annually allotted to the Austrian Landwehr, and 12,500 to the
Hungarian Honveds. The term of service is 2 years (3 years in
the cavalry) with the colours, 7 or 8 in the reserve and 2 in the
Landwehr; in the case of men not drafted to the active army
the same total period of service is spent in various special
reserves.

For the military and administrative service of the army the Dual
Monarchy is divided into 16 military territorial districts (15 of which
correspond to the 15 army corps) and 108 supplementary districts
(105 for the army, and 3 for the navy). In 1902, since which year no
material change was made in the formal organization of the army,
there were 5 cavalry divisions and 31 in-
fantry divisions, formed in 15 army corps,
which are located as follows: — I. Cracow, II.
Vienna, III. Graz, IV. Budapest, V. Press-
burg, VI. Kaschau, VII. Temesvar, VIII.
Prague, IX. Josefstadt, X. Przemysl, XI.
Lemberg, XII. Herrmannstadt, XIII. Agram,
XIV. Innsbruck, XV. Serajewo. In addition
there is the military district of Zara. The
usual strength of the corps is, 2 infantry divi-
sions (4 brigades, 8 or 9 regiments, 32 or 36
battalions), I cavalry brigade (18 squadrons),
and i artillery brigade (16-18 batteries or
128-144 field-guns), besides technical and
departmental units and in some cases fortress
artillery regiments. The infantry is organized
into line regiments, Jager and Tirolese regi-
ments, the cavalry into dragoons, lancers,
Uhlans and hussars, the artillery into regi-
ments. The Austrian Landwehr (which re-
tains the old designation K.K., formerly

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

applied to the Austrian regular army) is organized in 8 divisions of
varying strength, the " Royal Hungarian ' Landwehr or Honveds
in 7 divisions, both Austrian and Hungarian Landwehr having in
addition cavalry (Uhlans and hussars) and artillery. It is probable
that a Landwehr or Honveds division will, in war, form part of
each army corps except in the case of the Vienna corps, which has
3 divisions in peace. The remaining men of military age (up to 42)
as usual form the Landsturm. It is to be noted that this Land-
sturm comprises many men who would elsewhere be classed as
Landwehr.

The strength of the Austro-Hungarian army on a peace footing
was as follows in 1905: —

Officers.

Men.

Horses.

Guns.

Infantry —

Common Army .

10,801

187,604

1,152

Austrian Landwehr .

1,883

23-905

174

Hungarian Honveds

2,258

21,149

262

Cavalry —

Common Army .

1,890

45,486

40,740

Austrian Landwehr .

170

1,861

1,282

Hungarian Honveds

390

4,170

3-510

Field Artillery ....

1,630

27,612

14.520

1048

Fortress Artillery .

408

7,722

I31

Technical troops

588

9-935

19

(Pioneers, and Railway and

Telegraph Regiment)

Transport Service

461

4-312

3,097

Sanitary Service .

85

3,062

Total . « .

20,564

336,818

64,887

1048

Belonging to the

Common Army .

15,863

285,733

59,659

1048

Austrian Landwehr .

2,053

25,766

1,456

Hungarian Honveds

2,648

25.319

3-772

The troops stationed in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1905 (376
officers and 6372 men) are included in the total for the common
army.

The peace strength of the active army in combatants is thus about
350,000 officers and men, inclusive of the two Landwehrs and of the
Austrian " K.K." guards, the Hungarian crown guards, the gen-
darmerie, &c. The numbers of the Landsturm and the war strength
of the whole armed forces are not published. It is estimated that
the first line army in war would consist of 460,000 infantry, 49,000
cavalry, 78,000 artillery, 21,000 engineers, &c., beside train and non-
combatant soldiers. The Landwehr and Honved would yield 219,000
infantry and 18,000 cavalry, and other reserves 223,000 men. These
figures give an approximate total strength of 1,147,000, not inclusive
of Landsturm.

Fortifications. — The principal fortifications in Austria-Hungary
are: Cracow and Przemysl in Galicia; Komarom, the centre of the
inland fortifications, Peterv4rad, O-Arad and Temesvar in Hungary ;
Serajewo, Mostar and Bilek in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Alpine
frontiers, especially those in Tirol, have numerous fortifications,
whose centre is formed by Trent and Franzensfeste ; while all the
military roads leading into Carinthia have been provided with strong
defensive works, as at Malborgeth, Predil Pass, &c. The two capitals,
Vienna and Budapest, are not fortified. On the Adriatic coast, the
naval harbour of Pola is strongly fortified with sea and land defences ;
then come Trieste, and several places in Dalmatia, notably Zara and
Cattaro.

Navy. — The Austro-Hungarian navy is mainly a coast defence
force, and includes also a flotilla of monitors for the Danube. It is
administered by the naval department of the ministry of war. It
consisted in 1905 of 9 modern battleships, 3 armoured cruisers, 5
cruisers, 4 torpedo gunboats, 20 destroyers and 26 torpedo boats.
There was in hand at the same time a naval programme to build 12
armourclads, 5 second-class cruisers, 6 third-class cruisers, and a
number of torpedo boats. The headquarters of the fleet are at Pola,
which is the principal naval arsenal and harbour of Austria; while
another great naval station is Trieste.

Trade. — On the basis of the customs and commercial agreement
between Austria and Hungary, concluded in 1867 and renewable
every ten years, the following affairs, in addition to the common
affairs of the monarchy, are in both states treated according to the
same principles : — Commercial affairs, including customs legislation ;
legislation on the duties closely connected with industrial production
— on beer, brandy, sugar and mineral oils; determination of legal
tender and coinage, as also of the principles regulating the Austro-
Hungarian Bank; ordinances in respect of such railways as affect
the interests of both states. In conformity with the customs and
commercial compact between the two states, renewed in 1899,
the monarchy constitutes one identical customs and commercial
territory, inclusive of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the principality
of Liechtenstein.

The foreign trade of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is shown in
the following table: —

Year.

Imports.

Exports.

1900
1901
1902

1903
1904

1905

£70,666,000
68,833,000
71,666,000
78,200,000
85,200,000
89,430,000

£80,916,000
78,541,000
79,708,000
88,600,000
86,200,000
93,500,000

The following tables give the foreign trade of the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy as regards raw material and manufactured goods : —

Imports.

Articles.

Value in Millions Sterling.

1900.

1901.

1902.

1903.

1904.

Raw material (including "|

articles of food; raw

material for agriculture >
and industry ; and mining

41-5

40-5

41-8

45-9

51-9

and smelting products) J

Semi-manufactured goods .

9-6

9-6

10-3

10-6

10-8

Manufactured goods.

19-5

18-7

19-5

21-6

22-5

Exports.

Articles.

Value in Millions Sterling.

1900.

1901.

1902.

1903.

1904.

Raw material (as above)
Semi-manufactured goods .
Manufactured goods.

34-1

12-6

34-2

34-1
ii-i

33-3

35-8
n-i

32-8

39
12-4

37-2

35'3

12-6

38-3

The most important place of derivation and of destination for the
Austro-Hungarian trade is the German empire with about 40 %
of the imports, and about 60 % of the exports. Next in importance
comes Great Britain, afterwards India, Italy, the United States of
America, Russia, France, Switzerland, Rumania, the Balkan states
and South America in about the order named. The principal articles
of import are cotton and cotton goods, wool and woollen goods, silk
and silk goods, coffee, tobacco and metals. The principal articles of
export are wood, sugar, cattle, glass and glassware, iron and iron-
ware, eggs, cereals, millinery, fancy goods, earthenware and pottery,
and leather goods.

The Austro-Hungarian Bank. — Common to the two states of the
monarchy is the " Austro-Hungarian Bank," which possesses a legal
exclusive right to the issue of bank-notes. It was founded in 1816,
and had the title of the Austrian National Bank until 1878, when it
received its actual name. In virtue of the new bank statute of the
year 1899 the bank is a joint-stock company, with a stock of
£8,780,000. The bank's notes of issue must be covered to the extent
of two-fifths by legal specie (gold and current silver) in reserve;
the rest of the paper circulation, according to bank usage. The
state, under certain conditions, takes a portion of the clear profits of
the bank. The management of the bank and the supervision exercised
over it by the state are established on a footing of equality, both
states having each the same influence. The accounts of the bank at
the end of 1900 were as follows: capital, £8,750,000; reserve fund,
£428,250; note circulation, £62,251,000; cash, £50,754,000. In
1907 the reserve fund was £548,041; note circulation, £84,501,000;
cash, £60,036,625. The charter of the bank, which expired in 1897,
was renewed until the end of 1910. In the Hungarian ministerial
crisis of 1909 the question of the renewal of the charter played a
conspicuous part, the more extreme members of the Independence
party demanding the establishment of separate banks for Austria
and Hungary with, at most, common superintendence (see History,
below). (O. BR.)

HISTORY

I. The Whole Monarchy.

The empire of Austria, as the official designation of the
territories ruled by the Habsburg monarchy, dates back only to
1804, when Francis II., the last of the Holy Roman fhetuie
emperors, proclaimed himself emperor of Austria as "Emperor
Francis I. His motive in doing so was to guard °f
against the great house of Habsburg being relegated '
to a position inferior to the parvenus Bonapartes, in the event
of the final collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, or of the possible
election of Napoleon as his own successor on the throne of
Charlemagne. The title emperor of Austria, then, replaced that
of " Imperator Romanorum semper Augustus " when the Holy
Empire came to an end in 1806. From the first, however, it
was no more than a title, which represented but ill the actual
relation of the Habsburg sovereigns to their several states.

Austria.'

I.,

- Capitals of Countries

Capitals of Provinces ©

Capitals of Counties in Hungary °

Canals

Railways...

B

1 6"

H

24°

K

V

r,

V

5O AUSTRIA- HUNGARY

Scale, 1:3,800,000

Scale, 1:3,800,000

English Miles

40 60 So 100

o 20 40

24"

HISTORY)

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

5

Magyars and Slavs never willingly recognized a style which
ignored their national rights and implied the superiority of the
German elements of the monarchy; to the Germans it was a
poor substitute for a title which had represented the political
unity of the German race under the Holy Empire. For long
after the Vienna Congress of 1814-1815 the " Kaiser "as such
exercised a powerful influence over the imaginations of the
German people outside the Habsburg dominions; but this was
because the title was still surrounded with its ancient halo and
the essential change was not at once recognized. The outcome of
the long struggle with Prussia, which in 1866 finally broke the
spell, and the proclamation of the German empire in 1871 left
the title of emperor of Austria stripped of everything but a
purely territorial significance. It had, moreover, by the compact
with Hungary of 1867, ceased even fully to represent the relation
of the emperor to all his dominions; and the title which had
been devised to cover the whole of the Habsburg monarchy
sank into the official style of the sovereign of but a half; while
even within the Austrian empire proper it is resented by those
peoples which, like the Bohemians, wish to obtain the same
recognition of their national independence as was conceded to
Hungary. In placing the account of the origin and development
of the Habsburg monarchy under this heading, it is merely for
the sake of convenience.

The first nucleus round which the present dominions of the
house of Austria gradually accumulated was the mark which lay

along the south bank of the Danube, east of the river
Origin of Enns, founded about A.D. 800 as a defence for the
Austria! Prankish kingdom against the Slavs. Although its

total length from east to west was only about 60 m.,
it was associated in the popular mind with a large and almost
unbroken tract of land in the east of Europe. This fact, together
with the position of the mark with regard to Germany in general
and to Bavaria in particular, accounts for the name Osterreich
(Austria), i.e. east empire or realm, a word first used in a charter
of 996, where the phrase in regione vulgari nomine Ostarrichi
occurs. The development of this small mark into the Austro-
Hungarian monarchy was a slow and gradual process, and falls
into two main divisions, which almost coincide with the periods
during which the dynasties of Babenberg and Habsburg have
respectively ruled the land. The energies of the house of Baben-
berg were chiefly spent in enlarging the area and strengthening
the position of the mark itself, and when this was done the house
of Habsburg set itself with remarkable perseverance and mar-
vellous success to extend its rule over neighbouring territories.
The many vicissitudes which have attended this development
have not, however, altered the European position of Austria,
which has remained the same for over a thousand years. Stand-
ing sentinel over the valley of the middle Danube, and barring
the advance of the Slavs on Germany, Austria, whether mark,
duchy or empire, has always been the meeting-place of the
Teuton and the Slav. It is this fact which gives it a unique
interest and importance in the history of Europe, and which
unites the ideas of the Germans to-day with those of Charlemagne
and Otto the Great.

The southern part of the country now called Austria was
inhabited before the opening of the Christian era by the Taurisci,

a Celtic tribe, who were subsequently called the Norici,
habitants. anc^ wno were conquered by the Romans about 14 B.C.

Their land was afterwards included in the provinces of
Pannonia and Noricum, and under Roman rule, Vindobona,
the modern Vienna, became a place of some importance. The
part of the country north of the Danube was peopled by the
Marcomanni and the Quadi, and both of these tribes were fre-
quently at war with the Romans, especially during the reign of
the emperor Marcus Aurelius, who died at Vindobona in A.D. 180
when campaigning against them. Christianity and civilization
obtained entrance into the land, but the increasing weakness of
the Roman empire opened the country to the inroads of the
barbarians, and during the period of the great migrations it was
ravaged in quick succession by a numberof these tribes, prominent
among whom were the Huns. The lands on both banks of the

river shared the same fate, due probably to the fact to which
Gibbon has drawn attention, that at this period the Danube
was frequently frozen over. About 500 the district was settled
by the Slovenes, or Corutanes, a Slavonic people, who formed
part of the kingdom of Samo, and were afterwards included in
the extensive kingdom of the Avars. The Franks claimed some
authority over this people, and probably some of the princes
of the Slovenes had recognized this claim, but it could not be
regarded as serious while the Avars were in possession of the
land. In 791 Charlemagne, after he had established his authority
over the Bojuvarii or Bavarians, crossed the river Enns, and
moved against the Avars. This attack was followed by
campaigns on the part of his lieutenants, and in 805 the Avars
were finally subdued, and their land incorporated with the
Prankish empire. This step brought the later Austria definitely
under the rule of the Franks, and during the struggle E*tuMi*b-
Charlemagne erected a mark, called the East Mark, meat of
to defend the eastern border of his empire. A series of <*« Ba*t
margraves ruled this small district from 799 to 907, Mart-
but as the Prankish empire grew weaker, the mark suffered
more and more from the ravages of its eastern neighbours.
During the 9th century the Prankish supremacy vanished, and
the mark was overrun by the Moravians, and then by the
Magyars, or Hungarians, who destroyed the few remaining traces
of Prankish influence.

A new era dawned after Otto the Great was elected German
king in 936, and it is Otto rather than Charlemagne who must
be regarded as the real founder of Austria. In August
955 he gained a great victory over the Magyars on the
Lechfeld, freed Bavaria from their presence, and re-
founded the East Mark for the defence of his kingdom.
In 976 his son, the emperor Otto II., entrusted the government
of this mark, soon to be known as Austria, to Leopold, a member
of the family of Babenberg (q.v.), and its administration was
conducted with vigour and success. Leopold and his descendants
ruled Austria until the extinction of the family in 1246, and by
their skill and foresight raised the mark to an important place
among the German states. Their first care was to push its
eastern frontier down the Danube valley, by colonizing the lands
on either side of the river, and the success of this work may be
seen in the removal of their capital from Pochlarn to Melk, then
to Tulln, and finally about 1140 to Vienna. The country as far
as the Leitha was subsequently incorporated with Austria, and
in the other direction the district between the Enns and the Inn
was added to the mark in 1156, an important date in oochyot
Austrian history. Anxious to restore peace to Germany Austria
in this year, the new king, Frederick I., raised Austria created,
to the rank of a duchy, and conferred upon it ex- ll56'
ceptional privileges. The investiture was bestowed not only
upon Duke Henry but upon his second wife, Theodora; in case
of a failure of male heirs the duchy was to descend to females;
and if the duke had no children he could nominate his successor.
Controlling all the jurisdiction of the land, the duke's only
duties towards the Empire were to appear at any diet held in
Bavaria, and to send a contingent to the imperial army for any
campaigns in the countries bordering upon Austria. In 1186
Duke Leopold I. made a treaty with Ottakar IV., duke of Styria,
an arrangement which brought Styria and upper Austria to the
Babenbergs in 1192, and in 1229 Duke Leopold II. purchased
some lands rom the bishop of Freising, and took the title of
lord of Carniola. When the house of Babenberg became extinct
in 1246, Austria, stretching from Passau almost to Pressburg,
had the frontiers which it retains to-day, and this increase of
territory had been accompanied by a corresponding increase in
wealth and general prosperity. The chief reason for this pros-
perity was the growth of trade along the Danube, which stimu-
lated the foundation, or the growth, of towns, and brought
considerable riches to the ruler. Under the later Babenbergs
Vienna was regarded as one of the most important of German
cities, and it was computed that the duke was as rich as the
archbishop of Cologne, or the margrave of Brandenburg, and
was surpassed in this respect by only one German prince, the

6

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

°ake

king of Bohemia. The interests of the Austrian margraves and
dukes were not confined to the acquisition of wealth either in
land or chattels. Vienna became a centre of culture and learning,
and many religious houses were founded and endowed. The
acme of the early prosperity of Austria was reached
under Duke Leopold II., surnamed the Glorious, who

* __ _] £ * * 1

reigned from 1194101230.116 gave a code ot municipal
law to Vienna, and rights to other towns, welcomed the Minne-
singers to his brilliant court, and left to his subjects an enduring
memory of valour and wisdom. Leopold and his predecessors
were enabled, owing to the special position of Austria, to act
practically as independent rulers. Cherishing the privilege of
1156, they made treaties with foreign kings, and arranged
marriages with the great families of Europe. With full control of
jurisdiction and of commerce, no great bishopric nor imperial
city impeded the course of their authority, and the emperor
interfered only to settle boundary disputes.

The main lines of Austrian policy under the Babenbergs were
warfare with the Hungarians and other eastern neighbours, and
a general attitude of loyalty towards the emperors. The story
of the Hungarian wars is a monotonous record of forays, of
assistance given at times to the Babenbergs by the forces of
the Empire, and ending in the gradual eastward advance of
Austria. The traditional loyalty to the emperors, which was
cemented by several marriages between the imperial house and
the Babenbergs, was, however, departed from by the margrave
Leopold II., and by Duke Frederick II. During the investiture
struggle Leopold deserted the emperor Henry IV., who deprived
him of Austria and conferred it upon Vratislav II., duke of the
Bohemians. Unable to maintain his position, Vratislav was soon
driven out, and in 1083 Leopold again obtained possession of
the mark, and was soon reconciled with Henry. Very similar
Dake was the result of the conflict between the emperor
Frederick Frederick II. and Duke Frederick II. Ignoring the
n., the privilege of 1156, the emperor claimed certain rights
Quarrel- jn Austria, and summoned the duke to his Italian diets.

Frederick, who was called the Quarrelsome, had irri-
tated both his neighbours and his subjects, and complaints of his
exactions and confiscations reached the ears of the emperor.
After the duke had three times refused to appear before the
princes, Frederick placed him under the ban, declared the duchies
of Austria and Styria to be vacant, and, aided by the king of
Bohemia, the duke of Bavaria and other princes, invaded the
country in 1236. He met with very slight opposition, declared
the duchies to be immediately dependent upon the Empire,
made Vienna an imperial city, and imposed other changes upon
End of the ^ne constitution of Austria. After his departure,
house of however, the duke returned, and in 1239 was *in
Baben- possession of his former power, while the changes made

by the emperor were ignored. Continuing his career of
violence and oppression, Duke Frederick was killed in battle by
the Hungarians in June 1246, when the family of Babenberg
became extinct.

The duchies of Austria and Styria were now claimed by the
emperor Frederick II. as vacant fiefs of the Empire, and their
Dispute as g°vernment was entrusted to Otto II., duke of Bavaria.
to the Frederick, however, who was in Italy, harassed and
Austrian afflicted, could do little to assert the imperial authority,

and his enemy, Pope Innocent IV., bestowed the two

duchies upon Hermann VI., margrave of Baden,
whose wife, Gertrude, was a niece of the last of the Babenbergs.
Hermann was invested by the German king, William, count of
Holland, but he was unable to establish his position, and law
and order were quickly disappearing from the 'duchies. The
deaths of Hermann and of the emperor in 1250, however, paved
the way for a settlement. Weary of struggle and disorder, and
despairing of any help from the central authority, the estates
of Austria met at Triibensee in 1251, and chose Ottakar, son of
Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia, as their duke. This step was
favoured by the pope, and Ottakar, eagerly accepting the offer,
strengthened his position by marrying Margaret, a sister of
Duke Frederick II., and in return for his investiture promised

suo.es-
sion.

his assistance to William of Holland. Styria appears at this
time to have shared the fortunes of Austria, but it was claimed
by Bela IV., king of Hungary, who conquered the
land, and made a treaty with Ottakar in 1254 which
confirmed him in its possession. The Hungarian 4°^"
rule was soon resented by the Styrians, and Ottakar,
who had become king of Bohemia in 1253, took advantage of
this resentment, and interfered in the affairs of the duchy. A
war with Hungary was the result, but on this occasion victory
rested with Ottakar, and by a treaty made with Bela, in March
1261, he was recognized as duke of Styria. In 1269 Ottakar
inherited the duchy of Carinthia on the death of Duke Ulrich III.,
and, his power having now become very great, he began to
aspire to the German throne. He did something to improve
the condition of the duchies by restoring order, introducing
German colonists into the eastern districts, and seeking to
benefit the inhabitants of the towns.

In 1273 Rudolph, count of Habsburg, became German king,
and his attention soon turned to Ottakar, whose power menaced
the occupant of the German throne. Finding some
support in Austria, Rudolph questioned the title of Rudolph
the Bohemian king to the three duchies, and sought bur£ *
to recover the imperial lands which had been in the
possession of the emperor Frederick II. Ottakar was summoned
twice before the diet, the imperial court declared against him,
and in July 1275 he was placed under the ban. War was the
result, and in November 1276 Ottakar submitted to Rudolph,
and renounced the duchies of Austria, Styria and Carinthia.
For some time the three duchies were administered by Rudolph
in his capacity as head of the Empire, of which they formed part.
Not content with this tie, however, which was personal to
himself alone, the king planned to make them hereditary posses-
sions of his family, and to transfer the headquarters of the
Habsburgs from the Rhine to the Danube. Some opposition
was offered to this scheme; but the perseverance of the king
overcame all difficulties, and one of the most important events in
European history took place on the 27th of December
1282, when Rudolph invested his sons, Rudolph and burgs
Albert, with the duchies of Austria and Styria. He estab-
retained Carinthia in his own hands until 1286, when, Us
in return for valuable services, he bestowed it upon
Meinhard IV., count of Tirol. The younger Rudolph
took no part in the government of Austria and Styria, which was
undertaken by Albert, until his election as German king in 1 298.
Albert appears to have been rather an arbitrary ruler. In 1 288
he suppressed a rising of the people of Vienna, and he made the
fullest use of the ducal power in asserting his real or supposed
rights. At this time the principle of primogeniture was unknown
in the house of Habsburg, and for many years the duchies were
ruled in common by two, or even three, members of the family.
After Albert became German king, his two elder sons, Rudolph
and Frederick, were successively associated with him in the
government, and after his death in 1308, his four younger sons
shared at one time or another in the administration of Austria
and Styria. In 1314 Albert's son, Frederick, was chosen German
king in opposition to Louis IV., duke of Upper Bavaria, after-
wards the emperor Louis IV., and Austria was weakened by the
efforts of the Habsburgs to sustain Frederick in his contest with
Louis, and also by the struggle carried on between another
brother, Leopold, and the Swiss. A series of deaths among the
Habsburgs during the first half of the i4th century left Duke
Albert II. and his four sons as the only representatives of the
family. Albert ruled the duchies alone from 1344 to 1356, and
after this date his sons began to take part in the government.
The most noteworthy of these was Duke Rudolph IV.,
a son-in-law of the emperor Charles IV., who showed
his interest in learning by founding the university of
Vienna in 1365. Rudolph's chief aim was to make
Austria into an independent state, and he forged a series of
privileges the purport of which was to free the duchy from all
its duties towards the Empire. A sharp contest with the emperor
followed this proceeding, and the Austrian duke, annoyed that

"'

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Austria was not raised to the dignity of an electorate by the
Golden Bull of 1356, did not shrink from a contest with Charles.
In 1361, however, he abandoned his pretensions, but claimed
the title of archduke (q.v.) and in 1364 declared that the posses-
sions of the Habsburgs were indivisible. Meanwhile the acquisi-
tion of neighbouring territories had been steadily pressed on.
In 1335 the duchy of Carinthia, and a part of Carniola, were
inherited by Dukes Albert II. and Otto, and in 1363 Rudolph IV.
obtained the county of Tirol. In 1364 Carniola was made into
an hereditary duchy; in 1374 part of Istria came under the
rule of the Habsburgs; in 1382 Trieste submitted voluntarily
to Austria, and at various times during the century, other
smaller districts were added to the lands of the Habsburgs.

Rudolph IV. died childless in 1365, and in 1379 his two
remaining brothers, Leopold III. and Albert III., made a
division of their lands, by which Albert retained Austria proper
and Carniola, and Leopold got Styria, Carinthia and Tirol.
Leopold was killed in 1386 at the battle of Sempach, and Albert
became guardian for his four nephews, who subsequently ruled
their lands in common. The senior line which ruled in Austria
was represented after the death of Duke Albert III. in 1395 by
his son, Duke Albert IV., and then by his grandson, Duke
Albert V., who became German king as Albert II. in 1438.
Albert married Elizabeth, daughter of Sigismund, king of
Hungary and Bohemia, and on the death of his father-in-law
assumed these two crowns. He died in 1439, and just after his

death a son was born to him, who was called Ladislaus
Minority pOsthumus, and succeeded to the duchy of Austria and

to t^e kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia. William

and Leopold, the two eldest sons of Duke Leopold III.,
and, with their younger brothers Ernest and Frederick, the
joint rulers of Styria, Carinthia and Tirol, died early in the
1 5th century, and in 1406 Ernest and Frederick made a division
of their lands. Ernest became duke of Styria and Carinthia,
and Frederick, count of Tirol. Ernest was succeeded in 1424
by his sons, Frederick and Albert, and Frederick in 1439 by his
son, Sigismund, and these three princes were reigning when
King Albert II. died in 1439. Frederick, who succeeded Albert
as German king, and was soon crowned emperor as Frederick III.,
acted as guardian for Sigismund of Tirol, who was a minor, and
„ also became regent of Austria in consequence of the

at the infancy of Ladislaus. His rule was a period of struggle
emperor and disorder, owing partly to the feebleness of his own
Frederick character, partly to the wish of his brother, Albert, to

share his dignities. The Tirolese soon grew weary of
his government, and, in 1446, Sigismund was declared of age.
The estates of Austria were equally discontented and headed an
open revolt, the object of which was to remove Ladislaus from
Frederick's charge and deprive the latter of the regency. The
Popular leading spirit in this movement was Ulrich Eiczing
revolt (Eitzing or von Eiczinger, d. before 1463), a low-born
under adventurer, ennobled by Albert II., in whose service
E/cz/n "^ kad accumulatecl vast wealth and power. In 1451
and Count he organized an armed league, and in December, with
utrich of the aid of the populace, made himself master of Vienna,

whither he had summoned the estates. In March 1452
he was joined by Count Ulrich of Cilli, while the Hungarians and
the powerful party of the great house of Rosenberg in Bohemia
attached themselves to -the league. Frederick, who had hurried
back from Italy, was besieged in August in the Vienna Neustadt,
and was forced to deliver Ladislaus to Count Ulrich, whose
influence had meanwhile eclipsed that of Eiczing. Ladislaus
now ruled nominally himself, under the tutelage of Count Ulrich.
The country was, however, distracted by quarrels between the
party of the high aristocracy, which recognized the count of
Cilli as its chief, and that of the lesser nobles, citizens and
populace, who followed Eiczing. In September 1453 the latter,
by a successful tmeute, succeeded in ousting Count Ulrich, and
remained in power till February 1455, when the count once
more entered Vienna in triumph. Ulrich of Cilli was killed
before Belgrade in November 1456; a year later Ladislaus
himself died (November 1457). Meanwhile Styria and Carinthia

were equally unfortunate under the rule of Frederick and
Albert; and the death of Ladislaus led to still further complica-
tions. Austria, which had been solemnly created an Auitria
archduchy by the emperor Frederick in 1453, was created
claimed by the three remaining Habsburg princes, and «" ««*•
lower Austria was secured by Frederick, while Albert a<Khy-
obtained upper Austria. Both princes were unpopular, and in
1462 Frederick was attacked by the inhabitants of Vienna, and
was forced to surrender lower Austria to Albert, whose spend-
thrift habits soon made his rule disliked. A further struggle
between the brothers was prevented by Albert's death in 1463,
when the estates did homage to Frederick. The emperor was
soon again at issue with the Austrian nobles, and was
attacked by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary,
who drove him from Vienna in 1485. Although ham-
pered by the inroads of the Turks, Matthias pressed
on, and by 1487 was firmly in possession of Austria, Styria and
Carinthia, which seemed quite lost to the Habsburgs.

The decline in the fortunes of the family, however, was
to be arrested by Frederick's son, Maximilian, afterwards the
emperor Maximilian I., who was the second founder The
of the greatness of the house of Habsburg. Like his emperor
ancestor, Rudolph, he had to conquer the lands over
which his descendants were destined to rule, and by
arranging a treaty of succession to the kingdoms of Hungary
and Bohemia, he pointed the way to power and empire in
eastern Europe. Soon after his election as king of the Romans
in 1486, Maximilian attacked the Hungarians, and in 1400 he
had driven them from Austria, and recovered his hereditary lands.
In the same year he made an arrangement with his kinsman,
Sigismund of Tirol, by which he brought this county under his
rule, and when the emperor Frederick died in 1493, Maximilian
united the whole of the Austrian lands under his sway. Continu-
ing his acquisitions of territory, he inherited the possessions of
the counts of Gorz in 1500, added some districts to Tirol by
intervening in a succession war in Bavaria, and acquired Gradisca
in 1512 as the result of a struggle with Venice. He did much for
the better government of the Austrian duchies. Bodies were
established for executive, financial and judicial purposes, the
Austrian lands constituted one of the imperial circles which
were established in 1512, and in 1518 representatives of the
various diets (Landtage) met at Innsbruck, a proceeding which
marks the beginning of an organic unity in the Austrian lands.
In these ways Maximilian proved himself a capable and energetic
ruler, although his plans for making Austria into a kingdom, or
an electorate, were abortive.

At the close of the middle ages the area of Austria had in-
creased to nearly 50,000 sq. m., but its internal condition does
not appear to have improved in proportion to this Austriaat
increase in size. The rulers of Austria lacked the the dose
prestige which attached to the electoral office, and, of the
although five of them had held the position of German mlddle
king, the four who preceded Maximilian had added
little or nothing to the power and dignity of this position. The
ecclesiastical organization of Austria was imperfect, so long as
there was no archbishopric within its borders, and its clergy
owed allegiance to foreign prelates. The work of unification
which was so successfully accomplished by Maximilian was
aided by two events, the progress of the Turks in south-eastern
Europe, und the loss of most of the Habsburg possessions on the
Rhine. The first tended to draw the separate states together
for purposes of defence, and the second turned the attention of
the Habsburgs to the possibilities of expansion in eastern
Europe. (A. W. H.*)

At the time of the death of the emperor Maximilian in 1519
the Habsburg dominions in eastern Germany included the
duchies of Upper and Lower Austria, Styria, Carinthia, AuttrlM
Carniola and the county of Tirol. Maximilian was un</er
succeeded as archduke of Austria as well as emperor by Chmrie* v.
his grandson Charles of Spain, known in history as the *"d f**""
emperor Charles V. To his brother Ferdinand Charles *
resigned all his Austrian lands, including his claims on Bohemia

8

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

and Hungary. Austria and Spain were thus divided, and, in
spite of the efforts of the archduke Charles in the Spanish
Succession War, were never again united, for at the battle of

Mohacs, on the 28th of August 1526, Suleiman the

Magnificent defeated and killed Louis, king of Bohemia
results. and of Hungary, whose sister Anne had married

Ferdinand. By this victory the Turks conquered and
retained, till the peace of Karlowitz in 1699, the greater part of
Hungary. During most of his life Ferdinand was engaged in
combating the Turks and in attempting to secure Hungary. In
John Zapolya, who was supported by Suleiman, Ferdinand
found an active rival. The Turks besieged Vienna in 1530 and
made several invasions of Hungary and Austria. At length
Ferdinand agreed to pay Suleiman an annual tribute for the
small portion — about 12,228 sq. m. — of Hungary which he held.
During Charles V.'s struggles with the German Protestants,
Ferdinand preserved a neutral attitude, which contributed to
gain Germany a short period of internal peace. Though Ferdi-
nand himself did not take a leading part in German religious or
foreign politics, the period was one of intense interest to Austria.
Throughout the years from 1519 to 1648 there are, said Stubbs,
two distinct ideas in progress which " may be regarded as giving
a unity to the whole period. . . . The Reformation is one, the
claims of the House of Austria is the other." Austria did not
benefit from the reign of Charles V. The emperor was too much

absorbed in the affairs of the rest of his vast dominions,
and eS ' notably those of the Empire, rent in two by religious
AustHa. differences and the secular ambitions for which those

were the excuse, to give any effective attention to its
needs. The peace of Augsburg, 1555, which recognized a dualism
within the Empire in religion as in politics, marked the failure of
his plan of union (see CHARLES V.; GERMANY; MAURICE OF
SAXONY) ; and meanwhile he had been able to accomplish nothing
to rescue Hungary from the Turkish yoke. It was left for his
brother Ferdinand, a ruler of consummate wisdom (1556-1564)
"to establish the modern Habsburg-Austrian empire with its
exclusive territorial interests, its administrative experiments,
its intricacies of religion and of race."

Before his death Ferdinand divided the inheritance of the
German Habsburgs between his three sons. Austria proper was
The policy 'e^ to h's eldest son Maximilian, Tirol to the archduke
ofFerdi- Ferdinand; and Styria with Carinthia and Carniola
oandand to the archduke Charles. Under the emperor Maxi-
m/Wan//. mman II- d 564-1 S?6), who was also king of Bohemia

and Hungary, a liberal policy preserved peace, but
he was unable to free his government from its humiliating
position of a tributary to the Turk, and he could do nothing
to found religious liberty within his dominions on a permanent
basis. The whole of Austria and nearly the whole of Styria
were mainly Lutheran; in Bohemia, Silesia and Moravia,
various forms of Christian belief struggled for mastery; and
Catholicism was almost confined to the mountains of Tirol.
The The accession of Rudolph II.1 (1576-1612), a fanatical

reign of Spanish Catholic, changed the situation entirely.
Rudolph Under him the Jesuits were encouraged to press on

the counter-Reformation. In the early part of his
reign there was hardly any government at all. In Bohemia a
state of semi-independence existed, while Hungary preferred
the Turk to the emperor. In both kingdoms Rudolph had
failed to assert his sovereign power except in fitful attempts to
extirpate heresy. With anarchy prevalent within the Austrian
dominions some action became necessary. Accordingly in 1606
The the archdukes made a compact agreeing to acknowledge

family the archduke Matthias as head of the "family. This
<i606PaCt' arrangement proved far from successful. Matthias,

who was emperor from 1612 to 1619, proved unable
to restore order, and when he died Bohemia was practically
independent. His successor Ferdinand II. (1619-1637) was
strong of will; and resolved to win back Germany to the Catholic
faith. As archduke of Styria he had crushed out Protestantism
in that duchy, and having been elected king of Bohemia in 1618
1 Rudolph V. as archduke of Austria, II. as emperor.

was resolved to establish there the rule of the Jesuits. His
attempt to do so led to the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War
(see BOHEMIA; THIRTY YEARS' WAR). Till 1630 the
fortunes of Austria brightened under the active rule y^,^ '"'
of Ferdinand, who was assisted by Maximilian of War.
Bavaria and the Catholic League, and by Wallenstein.
The Palatinate was conquered, the Danish king was overthrown,
and it seemed that Austria would establish its predominance
over the whole of Germany, and that the Baltic would become
an Austrian lake. The fortunes of Austria never seemed brighter
than in 1628 when Wallenstein began the siege of Stralsund.
His failure, followed by the arrival of Gustavus Adolphus in
Germany in 1630, proved the death blow of Austrian hopes.
In 1632 Gustavus Adolphus was killed, in 1634 Wallenstein was
assassinated, and in 1635 France entered into the war. The
Thirty Years' War now ceased to be a religious struggle The
between Catholicism and Protestantism; it resolved Swedish
itself, into a return to the old political strife between and French
France and the Habsburgs. Till 1648 the Bourbon '
and Habsburg powers continued the war, and at the
peace of Westphalia Austria suffered severe losses. Ferdinand
III. (1637-1657) was forced to yield Alsace to France, to grant
territorial supremacy, including the right of making The peace
alliances, to the states of the Empire, and to acknow- of West-
ledge the concurrent jurisdiction of the imperial p.^fga'
chamber and the Aulic council. The disintegration
of the Holy Roman Empire was now practically accomplished,
and though the possession of the imperial dignity continued to
give the rulers of Austria prestige, the Habsburgs henceforward
devoted themselves to their Austrian interests rather than to
those of the Empire.

In 1657 Leopold I., who had already ruled the Austrian
dominions for two years, succeeded his father Ferdinand and
was crowned emperor in the following year. His long LeopoW/
reign of 48 years was of great importance for Austria,
as determining both the internal character and the external policy
of the monarchy. The long struggle with France to which the
ambitions of Louis XIV. gave rise, and which culminated in the
War of Spanish Succession, belongs less to the history of Austria
proper than to that of Germany and of Europe. Of more
importance to Austria itself was the war with Sweden (1657-60)
which resulted in the peace of Oliva, by which the independence
of Poland was secured and the frontier of Hungary safeguarded,-
and the campaigns against the Turks (1662-64 and 1683-99),
by which the Ottoman power was driven from Hungary, and
the Austrian attitude towards Turkey and the Slav peoples of
the Balkans determined for a century to come. The first war,
due to Ottoman aggression in Transylvania, ended
with Montecuculi's victory over the grand vizier at Turkey.
St Gothard on the Raab on the ist of August 1664.
The general political situation prevented Leopold from taking
full advantage of this, and the peace of Vasvar (August 10)
left the Turks in possession of Nagyvarad (Grosswardein) and
the fortress of Ersekujv&r (Neuhausel), Transylvania being
recognized as an independent principality. The next Turkish
war was the direct outcome of Leopold's policy in Hungary,
where the persecution of the Protestants and the suppression
of the constitution in 1658, led to a widespread conspiracy.
This was mercilessly suppressed; and though after a period
of arbitrary government (1672-1679), the palatinate and the
constitution, with certain concessions to the Protestants, were
restored, the discontent continued. In 1683, invited by Hun-
garian malcontents and spurred on by Louis XIV., the Turks
burst into Hungary, overran the country and appeared before
the walls of Vienna. The victory of the i2th of September,
gained over the Turks by John Sobieski (see JOHN III. SOBIESKI,
KING or POLAND) not only saved the Austrian capital, but was
the first of a series of successes which drove the Turks perman-
ently beyond the Danube, and established the power of Austria
in the East. The victories of Charles of Lorraine at Parkany
(1683) and Esztergom (Gran) (1685) were followed by the
capture of Budapest (1686) and the defeat of the Ottomans at

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Monies (1688). In 1688 the elector took Belgrade; in 1691
Louis William I. of Baden won the battle of Slankamen, and
on the i ith of September 1697 Prince Eugene gained the crowning
victory of Zenta. This was followed, on the 26th of January
1699, by the peace of Karlowitz, by which Slavonia, Transylvania
and all Hungary, except the banat of Temesvar, were ceded to
the Austrian crown. Leopold had wisely decided to initiate a
conciliatory policy in Hungary. At the diet of Pressburg
(1687-1688) the Hungarian crown had been made hereditary
in the house of Habsburg, and the crown prince Joseph had
been crowned hereditary king of Hungary (q.v.). In 1697
Transylvania was united to the Hungarian monarchy. A
further fact of great prospective importance was the im-
migration, after an abortive rising against the Turks, of some
30,000 Slav and Albanian families into Slavonia and southern
Hungary, where they were granted by the emperor Leopold
a certain autonomy and the recognition of the Orthodox
religion.

By the conquest of Hungary and Transylvania Leopold
completed the edifice of the Austrian monarchy, of which the
foundations had been laid by Ferdinand I. in 1526. He had
also done much for its internal consolidation. By the death of
the archduke Sigismund in 1665 he not only gained Tirol, but
a considerable sum of money, which he used to buy back the
Silesian principalities of Oppeln and Ratibor, pledged by
Ferdinand III. to the Poles. In the administration of his
dominions, too, Leopold succeeded in strengthening the authority
of the central government. The old estates, indeed, survived;
but the emperor kept the effective power in his own hands, and
to his reign are traceable the first beginnings of that system of
centralized bureaucracy which was established under Maria
Theresa and survived, for better or for worse, till the revolution
of 1848. It was under Leopold, also, that the Austrian standing
army was established in spite of much opposition; the regiments
raised in 1672 were never disbanded. For the intellectual life
of the country Leopold did much. In spite of his intolerant
attitude towards religious dissent, he proved himself an en-
lightened patron of learning. He helped in the establishment
of the universities of Innsbruck and Olmutz; and under his
auspices, after the defeat of the Turks in 1683, Vienna began to
develop from a mere frontier fortress into one of the most
brilliant capitals of Europe. (See LEOPOLD I.)

Leopold died in 1705 during the war of Spanish Succession
( 1 702-13), which he left as an evil inheritance to his sons Joseph I.
Warot (d. 1711) and Charles VI. The result of the war was
Spanish a further aggrandizement of the house of Austria;

kut not to tne extent *hat ha^ Deen hoped. Apart
from the fact that British and Austrian troops had been
unable to deprive Philip V. of his throne, it was from the point
of view of Europe at large by no means desirable that Charles VI.
should succeed in reviving the empire of Charles V. By the
treaty of Utrecht, accordingly, Spain was left to the House of
Bourbon, while that of Austria received the Spanish Netherlands,
Sardinia and Naples.

The treaty of Karlowitz, and the settlement of 1713-1714,
marked a new starting-point in the history of Austria. The

stH efforts of Turkey to regain her ascendancy in eastern
from /7/5 Europe at the expense of the Habsburgs had ended
to 1740. in failure, and henceforward Turkish efforts were
confined to resisting the steady development of Austria
in the direction of Constantinople. The treaties of Utrecht,
Rastadt and Baden had also re-established and strengthened
the position of the Austrian monarchy in western Europe.
The days of French invasions of Germany had for the time ceased,
and revenge for the attacks made by Louis XIV. was found in
the establishment of Austrian supremacy in Italy and in the
substitution of Austrian for Spanish domination in the Nether-
lands.

The situation, though apparently favourable, was full of
difficulty, and only a statesman of uncommon dexterity could
have guided Austria with success through the ensuing years.
Composed of a congeries of nationalities which included Czechs,

Magyars, Ruthenes, Rumanians, Germans, Italians, Flemings
and other races, and with territories separated by many miles,
the Habsburg dominions required from their ruler patience,
tolerance, administrative skill and a full knowledge of the
currents of European diplomacy. Charles VI. possessed none
of these qualities; and when he died in 1740, the weakness
of the scattered Habsburg empire rendered it an object of the
cupidity of the continental powers. Yet, though the War of
Spanish Succession had proved a heavy drain on the resources
of the hereditary dominions of the Austrian crown, Charles VI.
had done much to compensate for this by the successes of his
arms in eastern Europe. In 1716, in alliance with Venice, he
declared war on the Turks; Eugene's victory at Peterwardein
involved the conquest of the banat of Temesvar, and was followed
in 1717 by the capture of Belgrade. By the treaty signed at
Passarowitz on the zist of July 1718, the banat, which rounded
off Hungary and Belgrade, with the northern districts of Servia,
were annexed to the Habsburg monarchy.

Important as these gains were, the treaty none the less once
more illustrated the perpetual sacrifice of the true interests of
the hereditary dominions of the house of Habsburg to its
European entanglements. Had the war continued, Austria
would undoubtedly have extended her conquests down the
Danube. But Charles was anxious about Italy, then in danger
from Spain, which under Alberoni's guidance had occupied
Sardinia and Sicily. On the 2nd of August 1718, accordingly,
Charles joined the Triple Alliance, henceforth the Quadruple
Alliance. The coercion of Spain resulted in a peace by which
Charles obtained Sicily in exchange for Sardinia. The shifting
of the balance of power that followed belongs to the history of
Europe (q.v.) ; for Austria the only important outcome was that
in 1731 Charles found himself isolated. Being without a son, he
was now anxious to secure the throne for his daughter
Maria Theresa, in accordance with the Pragmatic p^gmatic
Sanction of the igth of April 1713, in which he had Sanction.
pronounced the indivisibility of the monarchy, and
had settled the succession on his daughter, in default of a male
heir. It now became his object to secure the adhesion of the
powers to this instrument. In 1731 Great Britain and Holland
agreed to respect it, in return for the cession of Parma, Piacenza
and Guastalla to Don Carlos; but the hostility of the Bourbon
powers continued, resulting in 1733 in the War of Polish Succes-
sion, the outcome of which was the acquisition of Lorraine by
France, and of Naples, Sicily and the Tuscan ports by Don
Carlos, while the power of the Habsburg monarchy in northern
Italy was strengthened by the acquisition of Parma, Piacenza
and Guastalla. At the same time Spain and Sardinia adhered
to the Pragmatic Sanction. Francis, the dispossessed duke of
Lorraine, was to be compensated with Tuscany. On the I2th
of February 1736 he was married to the archduchess Maria
Theresa, and on the nth of May following he signed the formal
act ceding Lorraine to France.

The last years of Charles VI. were embittered by the disastrous
outcome of the war with Turkey (1738-1739), on which he had
felt compelled to embark in accordance with the terms
of a treaty of alliance with Russia signed in 1726. Belgrade,
After a campaign of varying fortunes the Turks beat 1139.
the imperial troops at Krotzka on the 23rd of July
1739 and laid siege to Belgrade, where on the ist of September
a treaty was signed, which, with the exception of the banat,
surrendered everything that Austria had gained by the treaty
of Passarowitz. On the 2oth of October 1740, Charles died,
leaving his dominions in no condition to resist the attacks of
the powers, which, in spite of having adhered to the Pragmatic
Sanction, now sought to profit from weakness. Yet for
their internal development Charles had done much. His religious
attitude was moderate and tolerant, and he did his best to pro-
mote the enlightenment of his subjects. He was zealous, too,
for the promotion of trade and industry, and, besides the East
India Company which he established at Ostend, he encouraged
the development of Trieste and Fiume as sea-ports and centres
of trade with the Levant.

m. i a

IO

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

Maria
Theresa.

The accession of Maria Theresa to the throne of the Habsburgs
marks an important epoch in the history of Austria. For a
while, indeed, it seemed that the monarchy was on
the point of dissolution. To the diplomacy of the
i8th century the breach of a solemn compact was but
lightly regarded; and Charles VI. had neglected the advice of
Prince Eugene to leave an effective army of 200,000 men as a
more solid guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction than the signa-
tures of the powers. As it was, the Austrian forces, disorganized
in the long confusion of the Turkish wars, were in no condition
to withstand Frederick the Great, when in 1 740, at the head of
the splendid army bequeathed to him by his father, he invaded
Silesia (see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF). The Prussian
victory at Mollwitz (April 10, 1741) brought into the field against
Austria all the powers which were ambitious of expansion at
her expense: France, Bavaria, Spain, Saxony and Sardinia.
Nor was the peril wholly external. Apart from the perennial
discontents of Magyars and Slavs, the confusion and corruption
of the administration, and the misery caused by the ruin of the
finances, had made the Habsburg dynasty unpopular even in its
German states, and in Vienna itself a large section of public
opinion was loudly in favour of the claims of Charles of Bavaria.
Yet the war, if it revealed the weakness of the Austrian monarchy,
revealed also unexpected sources of strength. Not the least of
these was the character of Maria Theresa herself, who to the
fascination of a young and beautiful woman added a very
masculine resolution and judgment. In response to her personal
appeal, and also to her wise and timely concessions, the Hun-
garians had rallied to her support, and for the first time in history
awoke not only to a feeling of enthusiastic loyalty to a Habsburg
monarch, but also to the realization that their true interests
were bound up with those of Austria (see HUNGARY: History).
Although, then, as the result of the war, Silesia was by the
treaty of Dresden transferred from Austria to Prussia, while in
Italy by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 cessions were
made at the expense of the house of Habsburg to the Spanish
Don Philip and to Sardinia, the Austrian monarchy as a whole
had displayed a vitality that had astonished the world, and was
in some respects stronger than at the beginning of the struggle,
notably in the great improvement in the army and in the posses-
sion of generals schooled by the experience of active service.

The period from 1747 to 1756, the year of the outbreak of the
Seven Years' War, was occupied in preparations for carrying
into effect the determination of Maria Theresa to recover the
lost provinces. To give any chance of success, it was recognized
that a twofold change of system was necessary: in internal and
in external affairs. To strengthen the state internally a complete
revolution of its administration was begun under the auspices
of Count F. W. Haugwitz (1700-1765); the motley system which
had survived from the middle ages was gradually replaced by
an administrative machinery uniformly organized and central-
ized; and the army especially, hitherto patched together from
the quotas raised and maintained by the various diets and
provincial estates, was withdrawn from their interference.
These reforms were practically confined to the central provinces
of the monarchy; for in Hungary, as well as in the outlying
territories of Lombardy and the Netherlands, it was recognized
that the conservative temper of the peoples made any revolu-
tionary change in the traditional system inadvisable.

Meanwhile, in foreign affairs, it had become clear that for
Austria the enemy to be dreaded was no longer France, but
Prussia, and Kaunitz prepared the way for a diplomatic
French"' revolution, which took effect when, on the ist of May
alliance, 1756, Austria and France concluded the first treaty
and Seven of Versailles. The long rivalry between Bourbons and
Means' Habsburgs was thus ended, and France and Austria
remained in alliance or at peace until the outbreak of
the French Revolution. So far as Austria was concerned, the
Seven Years' War (q.v.) in which France and Austria were ranged
against Prussia and Great Britain, was an attempt on the part
of Maria Theresa to recover Silesia. It failed; and the peace of
Hubertsburg, signed on the isth of February 1763, left Germany

Bavaria.

divided between Austria and Prussia, whose rivalry for the
hegemony was to last until the victory of Koniggratz (1866) de-
finitely decided the issue in favour of the Hohenzollern monarchy.

The loss of Silesia led Austria to look for " compensation "
elsewhere. The most obvious direction in which this could be
sought was in Bavaria, ruled by the decadent house
of Wittelsbach, the secular rival of the house of
Habsburg in southern Germany. The question of the
annexation of Bavaria by conquest or exchange had
occupied the minds of Austrian statesmen throughout the
century: it would not only have removed a perpetual menace
to the peace of Austria, but would have given to the Habsburg
monarchy an overwhelming strength in South Germany. The
matter came to an issue in 1777, on the death of the elector
Maximilian III. The heir was the elector palatine Charles
Theodore, but Joseph II., who had been elected emperor in 1765,
in succession to his father, and appointed co-regent with his
mother — claimed the inheritance, and prepared to assert his
claims by force. The result was the so-called War of Bavarian
Succession. As a matter of fact, however, though the armies
under Frederick and Joseph were face to face in the field, the
affair was settled without actual fighting; Maria Theresa, fearing
the chances of another struggle with Prussia, overruled her son
at the last moment, and by the treaty of Teschen agreed to be
content with the cession of the Quarter of the Inn (Innviertel)
and some other districts.

Meanwhile the ambition of Catherine of Russia, and the war
with Turkey by which the empire of the tsars was advanced to
the Black Sea and threatened to establish itself south „
of the Danube, were productive of consequences of Austria
enormous importance to Austria in the East. Russian ana the
control of the Danube was a far more serious menace Ottoman
to Austria than the neighbourhood of the decadent
Ottoman power; and for a while the policy of Austria towards
the Porte underwent a change that foreshadowed her attitude
towards the Eastern Question in the ipth century. In spite of
the reluctance of Maria Theresa, Kaunitz, in July 1771, concluded
a defensive alliance with the Porte. He would have exchanged
this for an active co-operation with Turkey, could Frederick
the Great have been persuaded to promise at least neutrality
in the event of a Russo- Austrian War. But Frederick was un-
willing to break with Russia, with whom he was negotiating the
partition of Poland; Austria in these circumstances dared not
take the offensive; and Maria Theresa was compelled to pur-
chase the modification of the extreme claims of Russia in Turkey
by agreeing to, and sharing in, the spoliation of Poland. Her
own share of the spoils was the acquisition, by the
first treaty of partition (August 5, 1772), of Galicia
and Lodomeria. Turkey was left in the lurch; and
Austrian troops even occupied portions of Moldavia, in order
to secure the communication between the new Polish provinces
and Transylvania. At Constantinople, too, Austria once more
supported Russian policy, and was rewarded, in 1777, by the
acquisition of Bukovina from Turkey. In Italy the influence of
the House of Austria had been strengthened by the marriage
of the archduke Ferdinand with the heiress of the d'Estes of
Modena, and the establishment of the archduke Leopold in the
grand-duchy of Tuscany.

In internal affairs Maria Theresa may be regarded as the
practical founder of the unified Austrian state. The new system
of centralization has already been referred to. It only /nterna/
remains to add that, in carrying out this system, Maria reforms
Theresa was too wise to fall into the errors afterwards under
made by her son and successor. She was no doctrin-
aire, and consistently acted on the principle once laid
down by Machiavelli, that while changing the substance, the
prince should be careful to preserve the form of old institutions.
Alongside the new bureaucracy, the old estates survived in
somnolent inactivity, and even in Hungary, though the ancient
constitution was left untouched, the diet was only summoned
four times during the reign, and reforms were carried out, without
protest, by royal ordinance. It was under Maria Theresa, too,

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

ii

that the attempt was first made to make German the official
language of the whole monarchy; an attempt which was partly
successful even in Hungary, especially so far as the army was
concerned, though Latin remained the official tongue of the diet,
the county-assemblies and the courts.

The social, religious and educational reforms of Maria Theresa
also mark her reign as the true epoch of transition from medieval
to modern conditions in Austria. In religious matters the
empress, though a devout Catholic and herself devoted to the
Holy See, was carried away by the prevailing reaction, in which
her ministers shared, against the pretensions of the papacy.
The anti-papal tendency, known as Febronianism (g.v.), had made
immense headway, not only among the laity but among the
clergy in the Austrian dominions. By a new law, papal bulls
could not be published without the consent of the crown, and
the direct intercourse of the bishops with Rome was forbidden;
the privileges of the religious orders were curtailed; and the
education of the clergy was brought under state control. It was,
however, only with reluctance that Maria Theresa agreed to
carry out the papal bull suppressing the Society of Jesus; and,
while declaring herself against persecution, she could never be
persuaded to accept the views of Kaunitz and Joseph in favour
of toleration. Parallel with the assertion of the rights of the
state as against the church, was the revolution effected in the
educational system of the monarchy. This, too, was taken from
the control of the church; the universities were remodelled and
modernized by the introduction of new faculties, the study of
ecclesiastical law being transferred from that of theology to that
of jurisprudence, and the elaborate system of elementary and
secondary education was established, which survived with slight
modification till 1869.

The death of Maria Theresa in 1780 left Joseph II. free to
attempt the drastic revolution from above, which had been
Joseph II. restrained by the wise statesmanship of his mother.
and He was himself a strange incarnation at once of

" Joseph- doctrinaire liberalism and the old Habsburg autocracy.
Of the essential conditions of his empire he was con-
stitutionally unable to form a conception. He was a disciple,
not of Machiavelli, but of Rousseau; and his scattered
dominions, divided by innumerable divergences of racial and
class prejudice, and enncumbered with traditional institutions
to which the people clung with passionate conservatism, he
regarded as so much vacant territory on which to build up his
ideal state. He was, in fact, a Revolutionist who happened also
to be an emperor. " Reason " and " enlightenment " were his
watchwords; opposition to his wise measures he regarded as
obscurantist and unreasonable, and unreason, if it proved
stubborn, as a vice to be corrected with whips. In this spirit
he at once set to work to reconstruct the state, on lines that
strangely anticipated the principles of the Constituent Assembly
of 1789. He refused to be crowned or to take the oath of the
local constitutions, and divided the whole monarchy into thirteen
departments, to be governed under a uniform system. In
ecclesiastical matters his policy was also that of " reform from
above," the complete subordination of the clergy to the state,
and the severance of all effective ties with Rome. This treatment
of the " Fakirs and Ulemas " (as he called them in his letters),
who formed the most powerful element in the monarchy, would
alone have ensured the failure of his plans, but failure was made
certain by the introduction of the conscription, which turned
even the peasants, whom he had done much to emancipate,
against him. The threatened revolt of Hungary, and the actual
revolt of Tirol and of the Netherlands (see BELGIUM: History)
together with the disasters of the war with Turkey, forced him,
before he died, to the formal reversal of the whole policy of
reform.

In his foreign policy Joseph II. had been scarcely less unhappy.
In 1784 he had resumed his plan of acquiring Bavaria for Austria
by negotiating with the elector Charles Theodore its exchange
for the Netherlands, which were to be erected for his benefit
into a " Kingdom of Burgundy." The elector was not unwilling,
but the scheme was wrecked by the opposition of the heir to

Leopold

II.

the Bavarian throne, the duke of Zweibrucken, in response to
whose appeal Frederick the Great formed, on the 23rd of July
1785, a confederation of German princes (Ftirstenbund) for the
purpose of opposing the threatened preponderance of Austria.
Prussia was thus for the first time formally recognized as the
protector of the German states against Austrian ambition, and
had. at the same time become the centre of an anti-Austrian
alliance, which embraced Sweden, Poland and the maritime
powers. In these circumstances the war with Turkey, on which
Joseph embarked, in alliance with Russia, in 1788, would hardly
have been justified by the most brilliant success. The first
campaign, however, which he conducted in person was a dismal
failure; the Turks followed the Austrian army, disorganized
by disease, across the Danube, and though the transference of
the command to the veteran marshal Loudon somewhat retrieved
the initial disasters, his successes were more than counterbalanced
by the alliance, concluded on the 3ist of January 1790, between
Prussia and Turkey. Three weeks later, on the 2oth of February
1790, Joseph died broken-hearted.

The situation needed all the statesmanship of the new ruler,
Leopold II. This was less obvious in his domestic than in his
foreign policy, though perhaps equally present. As
grand-duke of Tuscany Leopold had won the reputation
of an enlightened and liberal ruler; but meanwhile
" Josephinism " had not been justified by its results, and the
progress of the Revolution in France was beginning to scare even
enlightened princes into reaction. Leopold, then, reverted to
the traditional Habsburg methods; the old supremacy of the
Church, regarded as the one effective bond of empire, was
restored; and the Einheitsstaat was once more resolved into its
elements, with the old machinery of diets and estates, and the
old abuses. It was the beginning of that policy of " stability "
associated later with Metternich, which was to last till the
cataclysm of 1848. For the time, the policy was justified by
its results. The spirit of revolutionary France had not yet
touched the heart of the Habsburg empire, and national rivalries
were expressed, not so much in expansive ambitions, as in a
somnolent clinging to traditional privileges. Leopold, therefore,
who made his debut on the European stage as the executor of
the ban of the Empire against the insurgent Liegeois, was free to
pose as the champion of order against the Revolution, without
needing to fear the resentment of his subjects. He played this
role with consummate skill in the negotiations that led up to the
treaty of Reichenbach (August 15, 1790), which ended the
quarrel with Prussia and paved the way to the armistice of
Giurgevo with Turkey (September 10). Leopold was now free
to deal with the Low Countries, which were reduced to order
before the end of the year. On the 4th of August 1791, was
signed at Sistova the definitive peace with Turkey, which
practically established the status quo.

On the 6th of October 1790, Leopold had been crowned Roman
emperor at Frankfort, and it was as emperor, not as Habsburg,
that he first found himself in direct antagonism to the Austria
France of the Revolution. The fact that Leopold's aaa the
sister, Marie Antoinette, was the wife of Louis XVI. French
had done little to cement the Franco-Austrian alliance,
which since 1763 had been practically non-existent;
nor was it now the mainspring of his attitude towards revolu-
tionary France. But by the decree of the 4th of August, which
in the general abolition of feudal rights involved the possessions
of many German princes enclaves in Alsace and Lorraine, the
Constituent Assembly had made the first move in the war
against the established European system. Leopold protested
as sovereign of Germany; and the protest was soon enlarged
into one made in the name of Europe. The circular letter of
Count Kaunitz, dated the 6th of July 1791, calling on the
sovereigns to unite against the Revolution, was at once the
beginning of the Concert of Europe, and in a sense the last
manifesto of the Holy Roman Empire as " the centre of political
unity." But the common policy proclaimed in the famous
declaration of Pillnitz (August 27), was soon wrecked upon the
particular interests of the powers. Both Austria and Prussia

12

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

•were much occupied with the Polish question, and to have
plunged into a crusade against France would have been to have
left Poland, where the new constitution had been proclaimed
on the 3rd of May, to the mercy of Russia. Towards the further
development of events in France, therefore, Leopold assumed
at first a studiously moderate attitude; but his refusal to
respond to the demand of the French government for the dis-
persal of the corps of Emigres assembled under the protection
of the German princes on the frontier of France, and the insistence
on the rights of princes dispossessed in Alsace and Lorraine,
precipitated the crisis. On the 25th of January 1792 the French
Assembly adopted the decree declaring that, in the event of no
satisfactory reply having been received from the emperor by the
ist of March, war should be declared. On the 7th of February
Austria and Prussia signed at Berlin an offensive and defensive
treaty of alliance. Thus was ushered in the series of stupendous
events which were to change the face of Europe and profoundly
to affect the destinies of Austria. Leopold himself did not live
to see the beginning of the struggle; he died on the ist of March
1792, the day fixed by the Legislative Assembly as that on which
the question of peace or war was to be decided.

The events of the period that followed, in which Austria
necessarily played a conspicuous part, are dealt with elsewhere
Effects of (see EUROPE, FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS,

tbeRevol- NAPOLEON, NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). Here it will

utionary only be necessary to mention those which form per-
Wars. manent landmarks in the progressive conformation of
the Austrian monarchy. Such was the second partition
of Poland (January 23, 1793), which eliminated the " buffer
state " on which Austrian statesmanship had hitherto laid such
importance, and brought the Austrian and Russian frontiers into
contact. Such, too, was the treaty of Campo Formio (October 17,
1797) which ended the first revolutionary war. By this treaty
the loss of the Belgian provinces was confirmed, and though
Austria gained Venice, the establishment of French preponder-
ance in the rest of Italy made a breach in the tradition of Habs-
burg supremacy in the peninsula, which was to have its full
effect only in the struggles of the next century. The rise of
Napoleon, and his masterful interference in Germany, produced
a complete and permanent revolution in the relations of Austria
to the German states. The campaigns which issued in the treaty
of Luneville (February 9, 1801) practically sealed the fate of the
old Empire. Even were the venerable name to survive, it was
felt that it would pass, by the election of the princes now tributary
to France, from the house of Habsburg to that of Bonaparte.
Francis II. determined to forestall the possible indignity of the
The subordination of his family to an upstart dynasty.

"Empire On the I4th of May 1804, Napoleon was proclaimed

' „ emperor of the French; on the nth of August
End of the Francis II. assumed the style of Francis I., hereditary
Holy emperor of Austria. Two years later, when the defeat

Roman of Austerlitz had led to the treaty of Pressburg

mpre. (January i, 1806), by which Austria lost Venice and
Tirol, and Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine had broken
the unity of Germany, Francis formally abdicated the title and
functions of Holy Roman emperor (August 6, 1806).

Austria had to undergo further losses and humiliations,
notably by the treaty of Vienna (1809), before the outcome of
Napoleon's Russian campaign in 1812 gave her the opportunity
for recuperation and revenge. The skilful diplomacy of Metter-
nich, who was now at the head of the Austrian government,
enabled Austria to take full advantage of the situation created
by the disaster to Napoleon's arms. His object was to recover
Austria's lost possessions and if possible to add to them, a policy
which did not necessarily involve the complete overthrow of the
French emperor. Austria, therefore, refused to join the alliance
between Russia and Prussia signed on the I7th of March 1813,
but pressed on her armaments so as to be ready in any event.
Her opportunity came after the defeats of the Allies at Liitzen
and Bautzen and the conclusion of an armistice at Pleswitz.
Between 200,000 and 300,000 Austrian troops were massed in
Bohemia; and Austria took up the r61e of mediator, prepared

to throw the weight of her support into the scale of whichever
side should prove most amenable to her claims. The news of
the battle of Vittoria, following on the reluctance of Napoleon
to listen to demands involving the overthrow of the whole
of his political system in central Europe, decided Austria in
favour of the Allies. By this fateful decision Napoleon's fall
was assured. By the treaty of Trachenberg (July 12, 1813)
the Grand Alliance was completed; on the i6th, I7th and
1 8th of October the battle of Leipzig was fought; and the
victorious advance into France was begun, which issued,
on the nth of April 1814, in Napoleon's abdication. (See
NAPOLEON, NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, EUROPE.)

It was a recognition of the decisive part played by Austria
in these great events that Vienna was chosen as the scene of the
great international congress summoned (September
1814) for the purpose of re-establishing the balance 0/vSnmi.
of power in Europe, which Napoleon's conquests had
upset. An account of the congress is given elsewhere (see
VIENNA, CONGRESS OF). The result for Austria was a triumphant
vindication of Metternich's diplomacy. He had, it is true, been
unable to prevent the retention of the grand-duchy of Warsaw
by Alexander of Russia; but with the aid of Great Britain and
France (secret treaty of January 3, 1815) he had frustrated
the efforts of Prussia to absorb the whole of Saxony, Bavaria
was forced to disgorge the territories gained for her by Napoleon
at Austria's expense, Illyria and Dalmatia were regained, and
Lombardy was added to Venetia to constitute a kingdom under
the Habsburg crown; while in the whole Italian peninsula
French was replaced by Austrian influence. In Germany the
settlement was even more fateful for Austria's future. The
Holy Empire, in spite of the protests of the Holy See, was not
restored, Austria preferring the loose confederation of sovereign
states (Staatenbund) actually constituted under her presidency.
Such a body, Metternich held, " powerful for defence, powerless
for offence," would form a guarantee of the peace of central
Europe — and of the preponderance of Austria; and in its councils
Austrian diplomacy, backed by the weight of the Habsburg
power beyond the borders of Germany, would exercise a greater
influence than any possible prestige derived from a venerable
title that had become a by-word for the union of unlimited
pretensions with practical impotence. Moreover, to the refusal
to revive the Empire — which shattered so many patriotic hopes
in Germany — Austria added another decision yet more fateful.
By relinquishing her claim to the Belgian provinces and other
outlying territories in western Germany, and by acquiescing in
the establishment of Prussia in the Rhine provinces, she abdicated
to Prussia her position as the bulwark of Germany against France,
and hastened the process of her own gravitation towards the
Slavonic East to which the final impetus was given in 1866.

In order to understand the foreign policy of Austria, insepar-
ably associated with the name of Metternich, during the period
from the close of the congress of Vienna to the out- /,,/c.,-,,..,/
break of the revolutions of 1848, it is necessary to know affairs of
something of the internal conditions of the monarchy AusM*
before and during this time. In 1792 Leopold II. had jc"a^/« //
been succeeded by his son Francis II. His popular and
designation of " our good Kaiser Franz " this monarch /Wetter-
owed to a certain simplicity of address and bonhomie nlch'
which pleased the Viennese, certainly not to his serious qualities
as a ruler. He shared to the full the autocratic temper of the
Habsburgs, their narrow-mindedness and their religious and
intellectual obscurantism; and the qualities which would have
made him a kindly, if somewhat tyrannical, father of a family,
and an excellent head clerk, were hardly those required by the
conditions of the Austrian monarchy during a singularly critical
period of its history.

The personal character of the emperor, moreover, gained a
special importance owing to the modifications that were made
in the administrative system of the empire. This had been origin-
ally organized in a series of departments: Aulic chanceries for
Austria, for Hungary and Transylvania, a general Aulic chamber
for finance, domains, mines, trade, post, &c., an Aulic council

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

of war, a general directory of accounts, and a chancery of the
household, court and state. The heads of all these departments
had the rank of secretaries of state and met in council under
the royal presidency. In course of time, however, this body
became too unwieldy for an effective cabinet, and Maria Theresa
established the council of state. During the early years of the
reign of Francis, the emperor kept himself in touch with the
various departments by means of a cabinet minister; but he
had a passion for detail, and after 1805 he himself undertook
the function of keeping the administration together. At the
same time he had no personal contact with ministers, who might
communicate with him only in writing, and for months together
never met for the discussion of business. The council of state
was, moreover, itself soon enlarged and subdivided; and in
course of time the emperor alone represented any synthesis of
the various departments of the administration. The jurisdiction
of the heads of departments, moreover, was strictly denned,
and all that lay outside this was reserved for the imperial decision.
Whatever was covered by established precedent could be settled
by the department at once; but matters falling outside such
precedent, however insignificant, had to be referred to the
throne.1 A system so inelastic, and so deadening to all initiative,
could have but one result. Gradually the officials, high and low,
subjected to an elaborate system of checks, refused to take
any responsibility whatever; and the minutest administrative
questions were handed up, through all the stages of the bureau-
cratic hierarchy, to be shelved and forgotten in the imperial
cabinet. For Francis could not possibly himself deal with all
the questions of detail arising in his vast empire, even had he
desired to do so. In fact, his attitude towards all troublesome
problems was summed up in his favourite phrase, " Let us sleep
upon it ": questions unanswered would answer themselves.

The result was the gradual atrophy of the whole administrative
machine. The Austrian government was not consciously
tyrannical, even in Italy; and Francis himself, though deter-
mined to be absolute, intended also to be paternal. Nor would
the cruelties inflicted on the bolder spirits who dared to preach
reform, which made the Austrian government a by-word among
the nations, alone have excited the passionate spirit of revolt
which carried all before it in 1848. The cause of this is to be
sought rather in the daily friction of a system which had ceased
to be efficient and only succeeded in irritating the public opinion
it was powerless to curb.

Metternich himself was fully conscious of the evil. He
recognized that the fault of the government lay in the fact that
it did not govern, and he deplored that his own function, in a
decadent age, was but " to prop up mouldering institutions."
He was not constitutionally averse from change; and he was
too clear-sighted not to see that, sooner or later, change was
inevitable. But his interest was in the fascinating game of diplo-
macy; he was ambitious of playing the leading part on the great
stage of international politics; and he was too consummate
a courtier to risk the loss of the imperial favour by any insistence
on unpalatable reforms, which, after all, would perhaps only
reveal the necessity for the complete revolution which he feared.

The alternative was to use the whole force of the government
to keep things as they were. The disintegrating force of the
ever-simmering racial rivalries could be kept in check by the
army ; Hungarian regiments garrisoned Italy, Italian regiments
guarded Galicia, Poles occupied Austria, and Austrians Hungary.
The peril from the infiltration of " revolutionary " ideas from
without was met by the erection round the Austrian dominions
of a Chinese wall of tariffs and censors, which had, however, no
more success than is usual with such expedients.2 The peril
from the independent growth of Liberalism within was guarded
against by a rigid supervision of the press and the re-establish-
ment of clerical control over education. Music alone flourished,

1 Thus, while the number of recruits, though varying from year
to year, could be settled by the war department, the question of
the claim of a single conscript for exemption, on grounds not recog-
nized by precedent, could only be settled by imperial decree.

' Forbidden books were the only ones read, and forbidden news-
papers the only ones believed.

free from government interference; but, curiously enough,
the movements, in Bohemia, Croatia and elsewhere, for the
revival of the national literatures and languages — which were
to issue in the most difficult problem facing the Austrian govern-
ment at the opening of the aoth century — were encouraged in
exalted circles, as tending to divert attention from political
to purely scientific interests. Meanwhile the old system of
provincial diets and estates was continued or revived (in 1816 in
Tirol and Vorarlberg, 1817 in Galicia, 1818 in Carniola, 1828 in
the circle of Salzburg), but they were in no sense representative,
clergy and nobles alone being eligible, with a few delegates from
the towns, and they had practically no functions beyond register-
ing the imperial decrees, relative to recruiting or taxation, and
dealing with matters of local police.* Even the ancient right of
petition was seldom exercised, and then only to meet with the
imperial disfavour. And this stagnation of the administration
was accompanied, as might have been expected, by economic
stagnation. Agriculture languished, hampered, as in France
before the Revolution, by the feudal privileges of a noble caste
which no longer gave any equivalent service to the state; trade
was strangled by the system of high tariffs at the frontier and
internal octrois; and finally public credit was shaken to its
foundations by lavish issues of paper money and the neglect to
publish the budget.

The maintenance within the empire of a system so artificial
and so unsound, involved in foreign affairs the policy of pre-
venting the success of any movements by which it Metier-
might be threatened. The triumph of Liberal principles nich-s
or of national aspirations in Germany, or elsewhere policy of
in Europe, might easily, as the events of 1848 proved,
shatter the whole rotten structure of the Habsburg monarchy,
which survived only owing to the apathy of the popula-
tions it oppressed. This, then, is the explanation of the
system of " stability " which Metternich succeeded in imposing
for thirty years upon Europe. If he persuaded Frederick
William III. that the grant of a popular constitution would be
fatal to the Prussian monarchy, this was through no love of
Prussia; the Carlsbad Decrees and the Vienna Final Act were
designed to keep Germany quiet, lest the sleep of Austria should
be disturbed; the lofty claims of the Troppau Protocol were but
to cover an Austrian aggression directed to purely Austrian ends;
and in the Eastern Question, the moral support given to the
" legitimate " authority of the sultan over the " rebel " Greeks
was dictated solely by the interest of Austria in maintaining
the integrity of Turkey. (See EUROPE: History; GERMANY:
History; ALEXANDER I. of Russia; METTERNICH, &c.)

Judged by the standard of its own aims Metternich's diplomacy
was, on the whole, completely successful. For fifteen years
after the congress of Vienna, in spite of frequent alarms, the
peace of Europe was not seriously disturbed; and even in 1830,
the revolution at Paris found no echo in the great body of the
Austrian dominions. The isolated revolts in Italy were easily
suppressed; and the insurrection of Poland, though it provoked
the lively sympathy of the Magyars and Czechs, led to no actual
movement in the Habsburg states. For a moment, indeed,
Metternich had meditated taking advantage of the popular
feeling to throw the weight of Austria into the scale in favour
of the Poles, and thus, by re-establishing a Polish kingdom under
Austrian influence, to restore the barrier between the two
empires which the partition of Poland had destroyed. But
cautious counsels prevailed, and by the victory of the Russian
arms the status quo was restored (see POLAND).

The years that followed were not wanting in signs of the coming
storm. On the 2nd of March 1835 Francis I. died, and was
succeeded by his son Ferdinand I. The new emperor Ferdl-
was personally amiable, but so enfeebled by epilepsy aaad I.
as to be incapable of ruling; a veiled regency had to
be constituted to carry on the government, and the
vices of the administration were further accentuated by weakness
and divided counsels at the centre. Under these circumstances

' In Hungary the diet was not summoned at all between 1811
and 1825, nor in Transylvania between 1811 and 1834."

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

popular discontent made rapid headway. The earliest symptoms
of political agitation were in Hungary, where the diet began to
show signs of vigorous life, and the growing Slav separatist
movements, especially in the south of the kingdom, were rousing
the old spirit of Magyar ascendancy (see HUNGARY: History).
For everywhere the Slav populations were growing restive under
the German-Magyar domination. In Bohemia the Czech literary
movement had developed into an organized resistance to the
established order, which was attacked under the disguise of a
criticism of the English administration in Ireland. " Repeal "
became the watchword of Bohemian, as of Irish, nationalists
(see BOHEMIA). Among the southern Slavs the "Illyrian"
movement, voiced from 1836 onward in the Illyrian National
Gazette of Ljudevit Gaj, was directed in the first instance to a
somewhat shadowy Pan-Slav union, which, on the interference
of the Austrian government in 1844, was exchanged for the more
definite object of a revival of " the Triune Kingdom " (Croatia,
Slavonia, Dalmatia) independent of the Hungarian crown (see
CROATIA, &c.). In the German provinces also, in spite of
Metternich's censors and police, the national movements in
Germany had gained an entrance, and, as the revolution of 1848
in Vienna was to show, the most advanced revolutionary views
were making headway.

The most important of all the symptoms of the approaching
cataclysm was, however, the growing unrest among the peasants.
As had been proved in France in 1789, and was again
to be shown in Russia in 1906, the success of any
political revolution depended ultimately upon the
attitude of the peasant class. In this lies the main
significance of the rising in Galicia in 1846. This was in its origin
a Polish nationalist movement, hatched in the little independent
republic of Cracow. As such it had little importance; though,
owing to the incompetence of the Austrian commander, the
Poles gained some initial successes. More fateful was the
attitude of the Orthodox Ruthenian peasantry, who were divided
from their Catholic Polish over-lords by centuries of religious
and feudal oppression. The Poles had sought, by lavish promises,
to draw them into their ranks; their reply was to rise in support of
the Austrian government. In the fight at Gdow (February 26th) ,
where Benedek laid the foundations of the military reputation
that was to end so tragically at Koniggratz, flail and scythe
wrought more havoc in the rebel ranks than the Austrian mus-
ketry. Since, in spite of this object-lesson, the Polish nobles
still continued their offers, the peasants consulted the local
Austrian authorities as to what course they should take; and
the local authorities, unaccustomed to arriving at any decision
without consulting Vienna, practically gave them carte blanche
to do as they liked. A hideous jacquerie followed for three or
four days; during which cartloads of dead were carried into
Tarnow, where the peasants received a reward for every " rebel "
brought in.

This affair was not only a scandal for which the Austrian
government, through its agents, was responsible; but it placed
the authorities at Vienna in a serious dilemma. For the
Ruthenians, elated by their victory, refused to return to work,
and demanded the abolition of all feudal obligations as the reward
of their loyalty. To refuse this claim would have meant the
indefinite prolongation of the crisis; to concede it would have
been to invite the peasantry of the whole empire to put forth
similar demands on pain of a general rising. On the I3th of
April 1846 an imperial decree abolished some of the more
burdensome feudal obligations; but this concession was greeted
with so fierce an outcry, as an authoritative endorsement of the
atrocities, that it was again revoked, and Count Franz von Stadion
was sent to restore order in Galicia. The result was, that the
peasants saw that though their wrongs were admitted, their sole
hope of redress lay in a change of government, and added the
dead weight of their resentment to the forces making for revolu-
tion. It was the union of the agrarian with the nationalist
movements that made the downfall of the Austrian system
inevitable.

The material for the conflagration in Austria was thus all

prepared when in February 1848 the fall of Louis Philippe
fanned into a blaze the smouldering fires of revolution throughout
Europe. On the 3rd of March, Kossuth, in the diet
at Pressburg, delivered the famous speech which was
the declaration of war of Hungarian Liberalism against 1348.
the Austrian system. " From the charnel-house of
the Vienna cabinet," he exclaimed, " a pestilential air breathes
on us, which dulls our nerves and paralyses the flight of our
spirit." Hungary liberated was to become the centre of freedom
for all the races under the Austrian crown, and the outcome was
to be a new " fraternization of the Austrian peoples." In the
enthusiasm of the moment the crucial question of the position
to be occupied by the conflicting nationalities in this" fraternal
union " was overlooked. Germanism had so far served as the
basis of the Austrian system, not as a national ideal, but because
" it formed a sort of unnational "media ting, and common element
among the contradictory and clamorous racial tendencies."
But with the growth of the idea of German unity, Germanism
had established a new ideal, of which the centre lay beyond the
boundaries of the Austrian monarchy, and which was bound to
be antagonistic to the aspirations of other races. The new
doctrine of the fraternization of the Austrian races would
inevitably soon come into conflict with the traditional German
ascendancy strengthened by the new sentiment of a united
Germany. It was on this rock that, both in Austria and in
Germany, the revolution suffered shipwreck.

Meanwhile events progressed rapidly. On the 1 1 th of March
a meeting of " young Czechs " at Prague drew up a petition
embodying nationalist and liberal demands; and on the same
day the diet of Lower Austria petitioned the crown to summon
a meeting of the delegates of the diets to set the Austrian finances
in order. To this last proposal the government, next day, gave
its consent. But in the actual temper of the Viennese the
slightest concession was dangerous. The hall of the diet was
invaded by a mob of students and workmen, Kossuth's speech
was read and its proposals adopted as the popular programme,
and the members of the diet were forced to lead a tumultuous
procession to the Hofburg, to force the assent of the government
to a petition based on the catch-words of the Revolution. The
authorities, taken by surprise, were forced to temporize and agreed
to lay the petition before the emperor. Meanwhile Fall of
round the hall of the diet a riot had broken out; the Metier-
soldiers intervened and blood was shed. The middle
classes now joined the rebels; and the riots had become
a revolution. Threatened by the violence of the mob,
Metternich, on the evening of the i3th of March, escaped from
the Hofburg and passed into exile in England.

The fall of Metternich was the signal for the outburst of the
storm, not in Austria only, but throughout central Europe.
In Hungary, on the 3131 of March, the government was forced
to consent to a new constitution which virtually erected Hungary
into an independent state. On the 8th of April a separate
constitution was promised to Bohemia; and if the petition of
the Croats for a similar concession was rejected, this was due
to the armed mob of Vienna, which was in close alliance with
Kossuth and the Magyars. The impotence of the Austrian
government in this crisis was due to the necessity of keeping
the bulk of the Austrian forces in Italy, where the news of
Metternich's fall had also led to a concerted rising against the
Habsburg rule (see ITALY). Upon the fortunes of war in the
peninsula depended the ultimate issue of the revolutions so far
as Austria was concerned.

The army and the prestige of the imperial tradition were, in
fact, the two sheet-anchors that enabled the Habsburg monarchy
to weather the storm. For the time the latter was the only one
available; but it proved invaluable, especially in Germany,
in preventing any settlement, until Radetzky's victory of
Novara had set free the army, and thus once more enabled Austria
to back her policy by force. The Austrian government, in no
position to refuse, had consented to send delegates from its
German provinces to the parliament of united Germany, which
met at Frankfort on the i8th of May 1848. The question at

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

once arose of the place of the Austrian monarchy in united
Germany. Were only its German provinces to be included ?
Or was it to be incorporated whole ? As to the first, the Austrian
government would not listen to the suggestion of a settlement
which would have split the monarchy in half and subjected it
to a double allegiance. As to the second, German patriots could
not stomach the inclusion in Germany of a vast non-German
population. The dilemma was from the first so obvious that
the parliament would have done well to have recognized at once
that the only possible solution was that arrived at, after the
withdrawal of the Austrian delegates, by the exclusion of Austria
altogether and the offer of the crown of Germany to Frederick
William of Prussia. But the shadow of the Holy Empire,
immemorially associated with the house of Habsburg, still
darkened the counsels of German statesmen. The Austrian
archduke John had been appointed regent, pending the election
of an emperor; and the political leaders could neither break
loose from the tradition of Austrian hegemony, nor reconcile
themselves with the idea of a mutilated Germany, till it was too
late, and Austria was once more in a position to re-establish the
system devised by her diplomacy at the congress of Vienna.
(See GERMANY: History.)

This fatal procrastination was perhaps not without excuse,
in view of the critical situation of the Austrian monarchy during
1848. For months after the fall of Metternich Austria was
practically without a central government. Vienna itself, where
on the 1 4th of March the establishment of a National Guard
was authorized by the emperor, was ruled by a committee of
students and citizens, who arrogated to themselves a voice in
imperial affairs, and imposed their will on the distracted ministry.
On the 1 5th of March the government proposed to summon a
central committee of local diets; but this was far from satisfying
public opinion, and on the 25th of April a constitution was
proclaimed, including the whole monarchy with the exception
of Hungary and Lombardo-Venetia. This was, however, met
by vigorous protests from Czechs and Poles, while its provisions
for a partly nominated senate, and the indirect election of
deputies, excited the wrath of radical Vienna. Committees of
students and national guards were formed; on the I3th of May
a Central Committee was established; and on the isth a fresh
insurrection broke out, as a result of which the government
once more yielded, recognizing the Central Committee, admitting
the right of the National Guard to take an active part in politics,
and promising the convocation of a National Convention on the
basis of a single chamber elected by universal suffrage. On the
1 7th the emperor left Vienna for Innsbruck " for the benefit of
his health," and thence, on the 2oth, issued a proclamation in
which he cast himself on the loyalty of his faithful provinces,
and, while confirming the concessions of March, ignored those
of the 1 5th of May. The flight of the emperor had led to a
revulsion of feeling in Vienna; but the issue of the proclamation
and the attempt of the government to disperse the students by
closing the university, led to a fresh outbreak on the 26th. Once
more the ministry conceded all the demands of the insurgents,
and even went so far as to hand over the public treasury and
the responsibility of keeping order to a newly constituted
Committee of Public Safety.

The tide was now, however, on the turn. The Jacobinism
of the Vienna democracy was not really representative of any
widespread opinion even in the German parts of
move? Austria, while its loud-voiced Germanism excited
meats. the lively opposition of the other races. Each of
these had taken advantage of the March troubles to
press its claims, and everywhere the government had shown
the same yielding spirit. In Bohemia, where the attempt to
hold elections for the Frankfort parliament had broken down
on the opposition of the Czechs and the conservative German
aristocracy, a separate constitution had been proclaimed on the
8th of April ; on March the 23rd the election by the diet of Agram
of Baron Joseph Jellachich as ban of Croatia was confirmed,
as a concession to the agitation among the southern Slavs; on
the 1 8th of March Count Stadion had proclaimed a new con-

stitution for Galicia. Even where, as in the case of the Serbs
and Rumans, the government had given no formal sanction
to the national claims, the emperor was regarded as the ultimate
guarantee of their success; and deputations from the various
provinces poured into Innsbruck protesting their loyalty.

To say that the government deliberately adopted the Machia-
vellian policy of mastering the revolution by setting race against
race would be to pay too high a compliment to its capacity.
The policy was forced upon it; and was only pursued consciously
when it became obvious. Count Stadion began it in Galicia,
where, before bombarding insurgent Cracow into submission
(April 26), he had won over the Ruthenian peasants by the
abolition of feudal dues and by forwarding a petition to the
emperor for the official recognition of their language alongside
Polish. But the great object lesson was furnished by the events
in Prague, where the quarrel between Czechs and Germans,
radicals and conservatives, issued on the I2th of June in a rising
of the Czech students and populace. The suppression of this
rising, and with it of the revolution in Bohemia, on the i6th of
June, by Prince Windischgratz, was not only the first victory of
the army, but was the signal for the outbreak of a universal race
war, in which the idea of constitutional liberty was sacrificed
to the bitter spirit of national rivalry. The parliament at
Frankfort hailed Windischgratz as a national hero, and offered
to send troops to his aid; the German revolutionists in Vienna
welcomed every success of Radetzky's arms in Italy as a victory
for Germanism. The natural result was to drive the Slav
nationalities to the side of the imperial government, since,
whether at Vienna or at Budapest, the radicals were their worst
enemies.

The i6th of June had been fatal to the idea of an independent
Bohemia, fatal also to Pan-Slav dreams. To the Czechs the most
immediate peril now seemed that from the German parliament,
and in the interests of their nationality they were willing to
join the Austrian government in the struggle against German
liberalism. The Bohemian diet, summoned for the ipth, never
met. Writs were issued in Bohemia for the election to the
Austrian Reichsrath; and when, on the zoth of July, this
assembled, the Slav deputies were found to be in a majority.
This fact, which was to lead to violent trouble later, was at first
subordinate to other issues, of which the most important was
the question of the emancipation of the peasants. After long
debates the law abolishing feudal services — the sole permanent
outcome of the revolution — was carried on the 3ist of August,
and on the 7th of September received the imperial consent.
The peasants thus received all that they desired, and their vast
weight was henceforth thrown into the scale of the government
against the revolution.

Meanwhile the alliance between the Slav nationalities and the
conservative elements within the empire had found a powerful
representative in Jellachich, the ban of Croatia. At jetiachlch
first, indeed, his activity had been looked at askance and
at Innsbruck, as but another force making for dis-
integration. He had apparently identified himself
with the " Illyrian " party, had broken off all communications
with the Hungarian government, and, in spite of an imperial
edict issued in response to the urgency of Batthyani, had
summoned a diet to Agram, which on the gth of June decreed
the separation of the " Triune Kingdom " from Hungary. The
imperial government, which still hoped for Magyar aid against
the Viennese revolutionists, repudiated the action of the ban,
accused him of disobedience and treason, and deprived him of
his military rank. But his true motives were soon apparent;
his object was to play off the nationalism of the " Illyrians "
against the radicalism of Magyars and Germans, and thus to
preserve his province for the monarchy; and the Hungarian
radicals played into his hands. The fate of the Habsburg empire
depended upon the issue of the campaign in Italy, which would
have been lost by the withdrawal of the Magyar and Croatian
regiments; and the Hungarian government chose this critical
moment to tamper with the relations of the army to the
monarchy. In May a National Guard had been established;

'

i6

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

and the soldiers of the line were invited to join this, with the
promise of higher pay; on the ist of June the garrison of Pest
took the oath to the Constitution. On the loth Jellachich issued
a proclamation to the Croatian regiments in Italy, bidding them
remain and fight for the emperor and the common Fatherland.
His loyalty to the tradition of the imperial army was thus
announced, and the alliance was cemented between the army
and the southern Slavs.

Jellachich, who had gone to Innsbruck to lay the Slav view
before the emperor, was allowed to return to Agram, though not
as yet formally reinstated. Here the diet passed a resolution
denouncing the dual system and demanding the restoration of
the union of the empire. Thus was proclaimed the identity of
the Slav and the conservative points of view; the radical
"Illyrian " assembly had done its work, and on the pth of July
Jellachich, while declaring it " permanent," prorogued it
indefinitely "with a paternal greeting," on the ground that the
safety of the Fatherland depended now " more upon physical
than upon moral force." The diet thus prorogued never met
again. Absolute master of the forces of the banat, Jellachich
now waited until the intractable politicians of Pest should give
him the occasion and the excuse for setting the imperial army
in motion against them.

The occasion was not to be long postponed. Every day the
rift between the dominant radical element in the Hungarian
parliament and imperial court was widened. Kossuth
and his followers were evidently aiming at the complete
separation of Hungary from Austria; they were in sympathy,
if not in alliance, with the German radicals in Vienna and
Frankfort; they were less than half-hearted in their support
of the imperial arms in Italy. The imperial government, pressed
by the Magyar nationalists to renounce Jellachich and all his
works, equivocated and procrastinated, while within its councils
the idea of a centralized state, to replace the loose federalism
of the old empire, slowly took shape under the pressure of the
military party. It was encouraged by the news from Italy,
where, on the zsth of July, Radetzky had won the battle of
Custozza, and on the 6th of August the Austrian standard once
more floated over the towers of Milan. At Custozza Magyar
hussars, Croats from the Military Frontier, and Tirolese sharp-
shooters had fought side by side. The possibility was obvious of
combating the radical and nationalist revolution by means of
the army, with its spirit of comradeship in arms and its imperialist
tradition.

So early as the beginning of July, Austrian officers, with the
permission of the minister of war, had joined the Serb insurgents
who, under Stratemirovic, were defying the Magyar power in the
banat. By the end of August the breach between the Austrian
and Hungarian governments was open and complete; on the
4th of September Jellachich was reinstated in all his honours, and
on the nth he crossed the Drave to the invasion of Hungary.
The die was thus cast; and, though efforts continued to be
made to arrange matters, the time for moderate counsels was
passed. The conservative leaders of the Hungarian nationalists,
Eotvos and Deak, retired from public life; and, though Batthyani
consented to remain in office, the slender hope that this gave
of peace was ruined by the flight of the palatine (September 24)
and the murder of Count Lamberg, the newly appointed com-
missioner and commander-in-chief in Hungary, by the mob at
Pest (September 27). The appeal was now to arms; and the
fortunes of the Habsburg monarchy were bound up with the fate
of the war in Hungary (see HUNGARY: History).

Meanwhile, renewed trouble had broken out in Vienna, where
the radical populace was in conflict alike with the government
and with the Slav majority of the Reichsrath. The German
democrats appealed for aid to the Hungarian government; but
the Magyar passion for constitutional legality led to delay, and
before the Hungarian advance could be made effective, it was too
late. On the 7th of October the emperor Ferdinand had fled
from Schonbrunn to Olmutz, a Slav district, whence he issued
a proclamation inviting whoever loved "Austria and freedom"
to rally round the throne. On the nth Windischgratz proclaimed

his intention of marching against rebellious Vienna, and on the
i6th an imperial rescript appointed him a field-marshal and
commander-in-chief of all the Austrian armies except that of
Italy. Meanwhile, of the Reichsrath, the members of the Right
and the Slav majority had left Vienna and announced a meeting
of the diet at Briinn for the 2oth of October; all that remained
in the capital was a rump of German radicals, impotent in the
hands of the proletariat and the students. The defence of the
city was hastily organized under Bern, an ex-officer of Napoleon;
but in the absence of help from Hungary it was futile. On the
28th of October Windischgratz began his attack; on the ist
of November he was master of the city.

The fall of revolutionary Vienna practically involved that of
the revolution in Frankfort and in Pest. From Italy the con-
gratulations of Radetzky's victorious army came to Windisch-
gratz, from Russia the even more significant commendations
of the emperor Nicholas. The moral of the victory was painted
for all the world by the military execution of Robert Blum,
whose person, as a deputy of the German parliament, should
have been sacrosanct. The time had, indeed, not yet come to
attempt any conspicuous breach with the constitutional principle;
but the new ministry was such as the imperial sentiment would
approve, inimical to the German ideals of Frankfort, devoted
to the traditions of the Habsburg monarchy. At its head was
Prince Felix Schwarzenberg (q.v.), the " army-diplomat," a
statesman at once strong and unscrupulous. On the 27th of
November a proclamation announced that the continuation of
Austria as a united state was necessary both for Germany and
for Europe. On the 2nd of December the emperor Ferdinand,
bound by too many personal obligations to the revolutionary
parties to serve as a useful instrument for the new Accession
policy, abdicated, and his nephew Francis Joseph of Francis
ascended the throne. The proclamation of the new JosePl><
emperor was a gage of defiance thrown down to Magyars '
and German unionists alike: " Firmly determined to preserve
undimmed the lustre of our crown," it ran, " but prepared to
share our rights with the representatives of our peoples, we trust
that with God's aid and in common with our peoples we shall
succeed in uniting all the countries and races of the monarchy
in one great body politic."

While the Reichsrath, transferred to Kremsier, was discussing
" fundamental rights " and the difficult question of how to
reconcile the theoretical unity with the actual dualism of the
empire, the knot was being cut by the sword on the plains of
Hungary. The Hungarian retreat after the bloody battle of
Kapolna (February 26-27, 1849) was followed by the dissolution
of the Kremsier assembly, and a proclamation in which the
emperor announced his intention of granting a constitution to
the whole monarchy " one and indivisible." On the 4th of
March the constitution was published; but it proved all but as
distasteful to Czechs and Croats as to the Magyars, and the
speedy successes of the Hungarian arms made it, for the while,
a dead letter. It needed the intervention of the emperor
Nicholas, in the loftiest spirit of the Holy Alliance, before even
an experimental unity of the Habsburg dominions could be
established (see HUNGARY: History).

The capitulation of Vilagos, which ended the Hungarian
insurrection, gave Schwarzenberg a free hand for completing
the work of restoring the status quo ante and the influence of
Austria in Get many. The account of the process by which this,
was accomplished belongs to the history of Germany (q.v.).
Here it will suffice to say that the terms of the Convention of
Olmutz (November 29, 1850) seemed at the time a complete
triumph for Austria over Prussia. As a matter of fact, however,
the convention was, in the words of Count Beust, " not a Prussian
humiliation, but an Austrian weakness." It was in the power
of Austria to crush Prussia and to put an end to the dual influence
in the Confederation which experience had proved to be unwork-
able; she preferred to re-establish a discredited system, and to
leave to Prussia time and opportunity to gather strength for the
inevitable conflict.

In 1851 Austria had apparently triumphed over all its

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

difficulties. The revolutionary movements had been sup-
pressed, the attempt of Prussia to assume the leadership
in Germany defeated, the old Federal Diet of 1815
of Austria. had been restored. Vienna again became the centre
of a despotic government the objects of which were to
Germanize the Magyars and Slavs, to check all agitation for a
constitution, and to suppress all attempts to secure a free press.
For some ten years the Austrian dominion groaned under one of
the worst possible forms of autocratic government. The failure
of the Habsburg emperor to perpetuate this despotic r6gime was
due (i) to the Crimean War, (2) to the establishment of Italian
unity, and (3) to the successful assertion by Prussia of its claim
to the leadership in Germany. The disputes which resulted in
the Crimean War revealed the fact that " gratitude " plays but
a small part in international affairs. In the minds of Austrian
statesmen the question of the free navigation of the Danube,
which would have been imperilled by a Russian occupation of
the Principalities, outweighed their sense of obligation to Russia,
on which the emperor Nicholas had rashly relied. That Austria
at first took no active part in the war was due, not to any senti-
mental weakness, but to the refusal of Prussia to go along with
her and to the fear of a Sardinian attack on her Italian provinces.
But, on the withdrawal of the Russian forces from the Princi-
palities, these were occupied by Austrian troops, and on the
2nd of December 1854, a treaty of alliance was signed at Vienna,
between Great Britain, Austria and France, by which Austria
undertook to occupy Moldavia and Walachia during the con-
tinuance of the war and " to defend the frontier of the said
principalities against any return of the Russian forces." By
Article III., in the event of war between Russia and Austria the
alliance both offensive and defensive was to be made effective
(Hertslet, No. 252). With the progressive disasters of the
Russian arms, however, Austria grew bolder, and it was the
ultimatum delivered by her to the emperor Alexander II. in
December 1855, that forced Russia to come to terms (Treaty
of Paris, March 30, 1856).

Though, however, Austria by her diplomatic attitude had
secured, without striking a blow, the settlement in her sense
of the Eastern Question, she emerged from the contest without
allies and without friends. The " Holy Alliance " of the three
autocratic northern powers, recemented at Munchengratz in
1833, which had gained for Austria the decisive intervention
of the tsar in 1849, had been hopelessly shattered by her attitude
during the Crimean War. Russia, justly offended, drew closer
her ties with Prussia, where Bismarck was already hatching
the plans which were to mature in 1866; and, if the attitude
of Napoleon in the Polish question prevented any revival of
the alliance of Tilsit, the goodwill of Russia was assured for
France in the coming struggle with Austria in Italy. Already
the isolation of Austria had been conspicuous in the congress
of Paris, where Cavour, the Sardinian plenipotentiary, laid bare
before assembled Europe the scandal of her rule in Italy. It
was emphasized during the campaign of 1859, when Sardinia,
in alliance with France, laid the foundations of united Italy.
The threat of Prussian intervention, which determined the pro-
visions of the armistice of Villafranca, was due, not to love of
Austria, but to fear of the undue aggrandizement of France.
The campaign of 1859, and the diplomatic events that led up
to it, are dealt with elsewhere (see ITALY, ITALIAN WARS,
NAPOLEON III., CAVOUR) . The results to Austria were two-fold.
Externally, she lost all her Italian possessions except Venice;
internally, her failure led to the necessity of conciliating public
opinion by constitutional concessions.

The proclamation on the z6th of February 1861 of the new
constitution for the whole monarchy, elaborated by Anton von
Schmerling, though far from satisfying the national aspirations
of the races within the empire, at least gave Austria a temporary
popularity in Germany; the liberalism of the Habsburg monarchy
was favourably contrasted with the " reactionary " policy of
Prussia, where Bismarck was defying the majority of the diet
in his determination to build up the military power of Prussia.
The meeting of the princes summoned to Frankfort by the

emperor Francis Joseph, in 1863, revealed the ascendancy
of Austria among the smaller states of the Confederation; but
it revealed also the impossibility of any consolidation of the
Confederation without the co-operation of Prussia, which stood
outside. Bismarck had long since decided that the matter could
only be settled by the exclusion of Austria altogether, and
that the means to this end were not discussion, but " Blood and
Iron." The issue was forced by the developments of the tangled
Schleswig-Holstein Question (?.».), which led to the definitive
breach between the two great German powers, to the campaign
of 1866, and the collapse of Austria on the field of Koniggratz
(July 3. See SEVEN WEEKS' WAR). (W. A. P.; A. HL.)

The war of 1866 began a new era in the history of the Austrian
empire. By the treaty of Prague (August 23, 1866) the emperor
surrendered the position in Germany which his ancestors had held
for so many centuries; Austria and Tirol, Bohemia and Salzburg,
ceased to be German, and eight million Germans were cut off
from all political union with their fellow-countrymen. At the
same time the surrender of Venetia completed the work of 1859,
and the last remnant of the old-established Habsburg domination
in Italy ceased. The war was immediately followed by a re-
organization of the government. The Magyar nation, Estabiigh-
as well as the Czechs, had refused to recognize the meat of
validity of the constitution of 1861 which had estab- '*" dual
lished a common parliament for the whole empire; n"""nhy-
they demanded that the independence of the kingdom of
Hungary should be restored. Even before the war the necessity
of coming to terms with the Hungarians had been recognized.
In June 1865 the emperor Francis Joseph visited Pest and
replaced the chancellors of Transylvania and Hungary, Counts
Francis Zichy and Nadasdy, supporters of the February con-
stitution, by Count Majlath, a leader of the old conservative
magnates. This was at once followed by the resignation of
Schmerling, who was succeeded by Count Richard Belcredi.
On the 20th of September the Reichsrath was prorogued, which
was equivalent to the suspension of the constitution; and in
December the emperor opened the Hungarian diet in person,
with a speech from the throne that recognized the validity of the
laws of 1848. Before any definite arrangement as to their
re-introduction could be made, however, the war broke out;
and after the defeats on the field of battle the Hungarian diet
was able to make its own terms. They recognized no union
between their country and the other parts of the monarchy
except that which was based on the Pragmatic Sanction.1 All
recent innovations, all attempts made during the last hundred
years to absorb Hungary in a greater Austria, were revoked.
An agreement was made by which the emperor was to be crowned
at Pest and take the ancient oath to the Golden Bull ; Hungary
(including Transylvania and Croatia) was to have its own
parliament and its own ministry; Magyar was to be the official
language; the emperor was to rule as king; there was to be com-
plete separation of the finances; not even a common nationality
was recognized between the Hungarians and the other subjects
of the emperor; a Hungarian was to be a foreigner in Vienna,
an Austrian a foreigner in Budapest. A large party wished
indeed that nothing should be left but a purely personal union
similar to that between England and Hanover. Deak and the
majority agreed, however, that there should be certain institu-
tions common to Hungary and the rest of the monarchy; these
were — (i) foreign affairs, including the diplomatic and consular
service; (2) the army and navy; (3) the control of the expenses
required for these branches of the public service.

Recognizing in a declaratory act the legal existence of these
common institutions, they also determined the method by which
they should be administered. In doing so they carried out with
great exactitude the principle of dualism, establishing in form
a complete parity between Hungary on one side and the other
territories of the king on the other. They made it a condition

1 For the separate political histories of Austria and Hungary
see the section on II. Austria Proper, below, and HUNGARY;
the present section deals with the history of the whole monarchy
as such.

i8

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

that there should be constitutional government in the rest of the
monarchy as well as in Hungary, and a parliament in which
all the other territories should be represented. From both the
Hungarian and the Austrian parliament there was to be elected
a Delegation, consisting of sixty members; to these
Delegations the common ministers were to be re-
sponsible, and to them the estimates for the joint
services were to be submitted. The annual meetings were to
be held alternately in Vienna and in Pest. They were very care-
ful that these Delegations should not overshadow the parliaments
by which they were appointed. The Delegations were not to
sit together; each was to meet separately; they were to com-
municate by writing, every document being accompanied
by a translation in Magyar or German, as the case might be;
only if after three times exchanging notes they failed to agree
was there to be a common session; in that case there would be
no discussion, and they were to vote in silence; a simple majority
was sufficient. There were to be three ministers for common
purposes— (i) for foreign affairs; (2) for war; (3) for finance;
these ministers were responsible to the Delegations, but the
Delegations were really given no legislative power. The minister
of war controlled the common army, but even the laws determin-
ing the method by which the army was to be recruited had to
be voted separately in each of the parliaments. The minister
of finance had to lay before them the common budget, but they
could not raise money or vote taxes; after they had passed the
budget the money required had to be provided by the separate
parliaments. Even the determination of the proportion which
each half of the monarchy was to contribute was not left to the
Delegations. It was to be fixed once every ten years by separate
committees chosen for that purpose from the Austrian Reichsrath
and the Hungarian parliament, the so-called Quota- Deputations.
In addition to these " common affairs " the Hungarians, indeed,
recognized that there were certain other matters which it was
desirable should be managed or identical principles in the two
halves of the monarchy — namely, customs and excise currency;
the army and common railways. For these, however, no common
institutions were created; they must be arranged by agreement;
the ministers must confer and then introduce identical acts in the
Hungarian and the Austrian parliaments.

The main principles of this agreement were decided during
the spring of 1867; but during this period the Austrians were
not really consulted at all. The negotiations on behalf
ttte- °f 'ne court °f Vienna were entrusted to Beust, whom
meat. the emperor appointed chancellor of the empire and
also minister-president of Austria. He had no previous
experience of Austrian affairs, and was only anxious at once to
bring about a settlement which would enable the empire to take
a strong position in international politics. In the summer of
1867, however (the Austrian Reichsrath having met), the two
parliaments each elected a deputation of fifteen members to
arrange the financial settlement. The first matter was the debt,
amounting to over 3000 million gulden, in addition to the floating
debt, which had been contracted during recent years. The
Hungarians laid down the principle that they were in no way
responsible for debts contracted during a time when they had
been deprived of their constitutional liberties; they consented,
however, to pay each year 295 million gulden towards the interest.
The whole responsibility for the payment of the remainder of
the interest, amounting annually to over a hundred million gulden,
and the management of the debt, was left to the Austrians.
The Hungarians wished that a considerable part of it should be
repudiated. It was then agreed that the two states should form
a Customs Union for the next ten years; the customs were to
be paid to the common exchequer; all sums required in addition
to this to meet the expenses to be provided as to 30% by
Hungary and as to 70 % by Austria. After the financial question
had been thus settled, the whole of these arrangements
were then, on the 2ist and the 24th of December 1867, enacted
by the two parliaments, and the system of dualism was estab-
lished.

The acts were accepted in Austria out of necessity; but no

parties were really satisfied. The Germans, who accepted the
principle of dualism, were indignant at the financial arrange-
ments; for Hungary, while gaining more than an equal share
of power, paid less than one-third of the common expenses.
On the other hand, according to British ideas of taxable capacity,
Hungary paid, and still pays, more than her share. The Ger-
mans, however, could at least hope that in the future the financial
arrangements might be revised; the complaints of the Slav
races were political, and within the constitution there was no
means of remedy, for, while the settlement gave to the Hungarians
all that they demanded, it deprived the Bohemians or Galicians
of any hope that they would be able to obtain similar independ-
ence. Politically, the principle underlying the agreement was
that the empire should be divided into two portions; in one of
these the Magyars were to rule, in the other the Germans; in
either section the Slav races — the Serbs and Croatians, the Czechs,
Poles and Slovenes — were to be placed in a position of political
inferiority. *

The logical consistency with which the principle of Dualism was
carried out is shown in a change of title. By a letter to Beust of
the idth of November 1868 the emperor ordered that he should
henceforward be styled, not as before ' Emperor of Austria, King of
Hungary, King of Bohemia, &c.," but " Emperor of Austria, King
of Bohemia, &c., and Apostolic King of Hungary," thereby signify-
ing the separation of the two districts over which he rules. His
shorter style is " His Majesty the Emperor and King," and " His
Imperial and Apostolic Royal Majesty "; the lands over which he
rules are called " The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy " or " The
Austrian-Hungarian Realm." The new terminology, " Imperial
and Royal " (Kaiserlich und Koniglich), has since then been applied
to all those branches of the public service which belong to the
common ministries; this was first the case with the diplomatic
service; not till 1889 was it applied to the army, which for some
time kept up the old style of Kaiserlich-Koniglich; in 1895 it was
applied to the ministry of the imperial house, as office always held
by the minister for foreign affairs. The minister for foreign affairs
was at first called the Reichskanzler ; but in 1871, when Andrassy
succeeded Beust, this was given up in deference to Hungarian feeling,
for it might be taken to imply that there was a single state of which
he was minister. The old style Kaiserlich-Koniglich, the " K.K."
which has become so familiar through long use, is still retained in the
Austrian half of the monarchy. There are, therefore, e.g., three
ministries of finance : the Kaiserlich und Koniglich for joint affairs ;
the Kaiserlich-Koniglich for Austrian affairs; the Kirdlye for
Hungary.

The settlement with Hungary consisted then of three parts: —
(i) the political settlement, which was to be permanent and
has since remained part of the fundamental constitu-
tion of the monarchy; (2) the periodical financial attairs
settlement, determining the partition of the common
expenses as arranged by the Quota-Deputations and ratified
by the parliaments; (3) the Customs Union and the agreement
as to currency — a voluntary and terminable arrangement made
between the two governments and parliaments. The history
of the common affairs which fall under the management of the
common ministries is, then, the history of the foreign policy
of the empire and of the army. It is with this and this alone that
the Delegations are occupied, and it is to this that we must now
turn. The annual meetings call for little notice; they have
generally been the occasion on which the foreign minister has
explained and justified his policy; according to the English
custom, red books, sometimes containing important despatches,
have been laid before them; but the debates have caused less
embarrassment to the government than is generally the case
in parliamentary assemblies, and the army budget has generally
been passed with few and unimportant alterations.

For the first four years, while Beust was chancellor, the
foreign policy was still influenced by the feelings left by the war
of 1866. We do not know how far there was a real a

intention to revenge Koniggratz and recover the policy"
position lost in Germany. This would be at least a
possible policy, and one to which Beust by his previous history
would be inclined. There were sharp passages of arms with the

1 Baron H. de Worms, The Austro-Hungarian Empire (London,
1876), and Beust's Memoirs.

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Prussian government regarding the position of the South German
states; a close friendship was maintained with France; there
were meetings of the emperor and of Napoleon at Salzburg in
1868, and the next year at Paris; the death of Maximilian in
Mexico cast a shadow over the friendship, but did not destroy
it. The opposition of the Hungarians and financial difficulties
probably prevented a warlike policy. In 1870 there were dis-
cussions preparatory to a formal alliance with France against
the North German Confederation, but nothing was signed.1 The
war of 1870 put an end to all ideas of this kind; the German
successes were so rapid that Austria was not exposed to the
temptation of intervening, a temptation that could hardly have
been resisted had the result been doubtful or the struggle pro-
longed. The absorption of South Germany in the German
empire took away the chief cause for friction; and from that
time warm friendship, based on the maintenance of the estab-
lished order, has existed between the two empires. Austria
gave up all hope of regaining her position in Germany; Germany
disclaimed all intention of acquiring the German provinces of
Austria. Beust's retirement in 1871 put the finishing touch on
the new relations. His successor, Count Andrassy, a Hungarian,
established a good understanding with Bismarck; and in 1872
the visit of the emperor Francis Joseph, accompanied by his
minister, to Berlin, was the final sign of the reconciliation with
his uncle. The tsar was also present on that occasion, and for
the next six years the close friendship between the three empires
removed all danger of war. Three years later the full reconcilia-
tion with Italy followed, when Francis Joseph consented to visit
Victor Emmanuel in Venice.

The outbreak of disturbance in the Balkans ended this period
of calm. The insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina immedi-
ately affected Austria; refugees in large numbers
Eastern crossed the frontier and had to be maintained by
question, the government. The political problem presented was
a very difficult one. The sympathy of the Slav
inhabitants of the empire made it impossible for the government
of Vienna to regard with indifference the sufferings of Christians
in Turkey. Active support was impossible, because the Hun-
garians, among whom the events of 1848 had obliterated the
remembrance of the earlier days of Turkish conquest, were full
of sympathy for the Turks. It was a cardinal principle of
Austrian policy that she could not allow the erection of new
Slav states on her southern frontier. Moreover, the disturbances
were fomented by Russian agents, and any increase of Russian
influence (for which the Pan-Slav party was working) was full
of danger to Austria. For a time the mediation of Germany
preserved the good understanding between the two eastern
empires. In 1875 Andrassy drafted a note, which was accepted
by the powers, requiring Turkey to institute the reforms necessary
for the good government of the provinces. Turkey agreed to
do this, but the insurgents required a guarantee from the Powers
that Turkey would keep her engagements. This could not be
given, and the rebellion continued and spread to Bulgaria. The
lead then passed to Russia, and Austria, even after the outbreak
of war, did not oppose Russian measures. At the beginning of
1877 a secret understanding had been made between the two
powers, by which Russia undertook not to annex any territory,
and in other ways not to take steps which would be injurious
to Austria. The advance of the Russian army on Constantinople,
however, was a serious menace to Austrian influence; Andrassy
therefore demanded that the terms of peace should be submitted
to a European conference, which he suggested should meet at
Vienna. The peace of San Stefano violated the engagements
made by Russia, and Andrassy was therefore compelled to ask
for a credit of 60 million gulden and to mobilize a small portion
of the army; the money was granted unanimously in the
Hungarian Delegation, though the Magyars disliked a policy
the object of which .appeared to be not the defence of Turkey
against Russia, but an agreement with Russia which would
give Austria compensation at the expense of Turkey; in

1 See General Le Brun, Souvenirs militaires (1866-1870, Paris,
1895); also, Baron de Worms, op. cit., and the article on BEUST.

the Austrian Deputation it was voted only by a majority
of 39 to 20, for the Germans were alarmed at the report that
it would be used for an occupation of part of the Turkish
territory.

The active share taken by Great Britain, however, relieved
Austria from the necessity of having recourse to further measures.
By an arrangement made beforehand, Austria was Bomi*
requested at the congress of Berlin to undertake the ana
occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herze-
govina— an honourable but arduous task. The **"
provinces could not be left to the Turks; Austria could not
allow them to fall under Russian influence. The occupation
was immediately begun, and 60,000 Austrian troops, under the
command of General Philippovich,2 crossed the frontier on the
ZQth of July. The work was, however, more difficult than had
been anticipated; the Mahommedans offered a strenuous
resistance; military operations were attended with great difficulty
in the mountainous country; 200,000 men were required, and
they did not succeed in crushing the resistance till after some
months of obstinate fighting. The losses on either side were
very heavy; even after the capture of Serajevo in August, the
resistance was continued; and besides those who fell in battle,
a considerable number of the insurgents were put to death under
military law. The opposition in the Delegations, which met at
the end of the year, was so strong that the government had to
be content with a credit to cover the expenses for 1879 of less
than half what they had originally asked, and the supplementary
estimate of 40,000,000 gulden for 1878 was not voted till the
next year. In 1879 the Porte, after long delay, recognized the
occupation on the distinct understanding that the sovereignty
of the sultan was acknowledged. A civil administration was
then established, the provinces not being attached to either
half of the empire, but placed under the control of the joint
minister of finance. The government during the first two years
was not very successful; the Christian population were dis-
appointed at finding that they still had, as in the old days, to
pay rent to the Mahommedan begs. There were difficulties
also between the Roman Catholics and the members of the
Greek Church. In 1881 disturbances in Dalmatia spread over
the frontier into Herzegovina, and another expedition had to
be sent to restore order. When this was done Benjamin de
Kallay was appointed minister, and under his judicious govern-
ment order and prosperity were established in the provinces.
In accordance with another clause of the treaty of Berlin, Austria
was permitted to place troops in the sanjak of Novi-Bazar, a
district of great strategic importance, which separated Servia
and Montenegro, and through which the communication between
Bosnia and Salonica passed. This was done in September 1879,
an agreement with Turkey having specified the numbers and
position of the garrison. Another slight alteration of the frontier
was made in the same year, when, during the delimitation of
the new frontier of Montenegro, the district of Spizza was
incorporated in the kingdom of Dalmatia.

The congress of Berlin indirectly caused some difficulties with
Italy. In that country was a large party which, under the
name of the " Irredentists," demanded that those
Italian-speaking districts, South Tirol, Istria and 't^y,"f
Trieste, which were under Austrian rule, should be dentists.
joined to Italy; there were public meetings and riots
in Italy; the Austrian flag was torn down from the consulate in
Venice and the embassy at Rome insulted. The excitement spread
across the frontier; there were riots in Trieste, and in Tirol it
was necessary to make some slight movement of troops as a
sign that the Austrian government was determined not to
surrender any territory. For a short time there was appre-
hension that the Italian government might not be strong enough
to resist the movement, and might even attempt to realize these
wishes by means of an alliance with Russia; but the danger
quickly passed away.

In the year 1879 the European position of the monarchy was

' Josef, Freiherr Philippovic von Philippsberg (1818-1889),
belonged to an old Christian noble family of Bosnia.

20

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

placed on a more secure footing by the conclusion of a formal
alliance with Germany. In the autumn of that year Bismarck

visited Vienna and arranged with Andrassy a treaty
A"'?ace by which Germany bound herself to support Austria
Germany, against an attack from Russia, Austria-Hungary

pledging herself to help Germany against a combined
attack of France and Russia; the result of this treaty, of which
the tsar was informed, was to remove, at least for the time,
the danger of war between Austria-Hungary and Russia. It
was the last achievement of Andrassy, who had already resigned,
but it was maintained by his successor, Baron Haymerle, and
after his death in 1881 by Count Kaln6ky. It was strengthened
in 1882 by the adhesion of Italy, for after 1881 the Italians re-
quired support, owing to the French occupation of Tunis, and
after five years it was renewed. Since that time it has been the
foundation on which the policy of Austria-Hungary has depended,
and it has survived all dangers arising either from commercial
differences (as between 1880 and 1890) or national discord.
The alliance was naturally very popular among the German
Austrians; some of them went so far as to attempt to use it to
influence internal policy, and suggested that fidelity to this
alliance required that there should be a ministry at Vienna
which supported the Germans in their internal struggle with
the Slavs; they represented it as a national alliance of the
Teutonic races, and there were some Germans in the empire who
supported them in this view. The governments on both sides
could of course give no countenance to this theory; Bismarck
especially was very careful never to let it be supposed that he
desired to exercise influence over the internal affairs of his ally.
Had he done so, the strong anti-German passions of the Czechs
and Poles, always inclined to an alliance with France, would have
been aroused, and no government could have maintained the
alliance. After 1880, the exertions of Count Kaln6ky again
established a fairly good understanding with Russia, as was
shown by the meetings of Francis Joseph with the tsar in 1884
and 1885, but the outbreak of the Bulgarian question in 1885
again brought into prominence the opposed interests of Russia
and Austria-Hungary. In the December of this year Austria-
Hungary indeed decisively interfered in the war between Bulgaria
and Servia, for at this time Austrian influence predominated
in Servia, and after the battle of Slivnitza the Austro-Hungarian
minister warned Prince Alexander of Bulgaria that if he advanced
farther he would be met by Austro-Hungarian as well as Servian
troops. But after the abdication of Alexander, Count Kalnoky
stated in the Delegations that Austria-Hungary would not permit
Russia to interfere with the independence of Bulgaria. This
decided step was required by Hungarian feeling, but it was a
policy in which Austria-Hungary could not depend on the support
of Germany, for — as Bismarck stated — Bulgaria was not worth
the bones of a single Pomeranian grenadier. Austria-Hungary
also differed from Russia as to the position of Prince Ferdinand
of Bulgaria, and during 1886-1887 much alarm was caused by
the massing cf Russian troops on the Galician frontier. Councils
of war were summoned to consider how this exposed and distant
province was to be defended, and for some months war was
considered inevitable; but the danger was averted by the re-
newal of the Triple Alliance and the other decisive steps taken
at this time by the German government (see GERMANY).1

Since this time the foreign policy of Austria-Hungary has
been peaceful and unambitious; the close connexion with
Germany has so far been maintained, though during the last
few years it has been increasingly difficult to prevent the violent
passions engendered by national enmity at home from reacting
on the foreign policy of the monarchy; it would scarcely be
possible to do so, were it not that discussions on foreign policy
take place not in the parliaments but in the Delegations where
the numbers are fewer and the passions cooler. In May 1895
Count Kaln6ky had to retire, owing to a difference with Banffy,
the Hungarian premier, arising out of the struggle with Rome.
He was succeeded by Count Goluchowski, the son of a well-

1 Sir Charles Dilke, The Present Position of European Politics
(London, 1887).

known Polish statesman. In 1898 the expulsion of Austrian
subjects from Prussia, in connexion with the Anti-Polish policy
of the Prussian government, caused a passing irritation, to which
Count Thun, the Austrian premier, gave expression. The chief
objects of the government in recent years have been to maintain
Austro-Hungarian trade and influence in the Balkan states by the
building of railways, by the opening of the Danube for navigation,
and by commercial treaties with Rumania, Servia and Bulgaria;
since the abdication of King Milan especially, the affairs of Servia
and the growth of Russian influence in that country have caused
serious anxiety.

The disturbed state of European politics and the great increase
in the military establishments of other countries made it desirable
for Austria also to strengthen her military resources. The ^
The bad condition of the finances rendered it, however,
impossible to carry out any very great measures. In 1868 there
had been introduced compulsory military service in both Austria
and Hungary; the total of the army available in war had been
fixed at 800,000 men. Besides this joint army placed under the
joint ministry of war, there was in each part of the monarchy
a separate militia and a separate minister for national defence.
In Hungary this national force or honved was kept quite distinct
from the ordinary army; in Austria, however (except in Dalmatia
and Tirol, where there was a separate local militia), the Landwehr,
as it was called, was practically organized as part of the standing
army. At the renewal of the periodical financial and economic
settlement (Ausgleich) in 1877 no important change was made,
but in 1882 the system of compulsory service was extended to
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a reorganization was carried out,
including the introduction of army corps and local organization
on the Prussian plan. This was useful for the purposes of speedy
mobilization, though there was some danger that the local and
national spirit might penetrate into the army. In 1886 a law
was carried in either parliament creating a Landslurm, and
providing for the arming and organization of the whole male
population up to the age of forty-two in case of emergency,
and in 1889 a small increase was made in the annual number
of recruits. A further increase was made in 1892-1893. In
contrast, however, with the military history of other continental
powers, that of Austria-Hungary shows a small increase in the
army establishment. Of recent years there have been signs of an
attempt to tamper with the use of German as the common
language for the whole army. This, which is now the principal
remnant of the old ascendancy of German, and the one point of
unity for the whole monarchy, is a matter on which the govern-
ment and the monarch allow no concession, but in the Hungarian
parliament protests against it have been raised, and in 1899 and
1900 it was necessary to punish recruits from Bohemia, who
answered the roll call in the Czechish zde instead of the
German hier.

In those matters which belong to the periodical and terminable
agreement, the most important is the Customs Union, which
was established in 1867, and it is convenient to treat
separately the commercial policy of the dual state.2 customs
At first the customs tariff in Austria-Hungary, as in union.
most other countries, was based on a number of
commercial treaties with Germany, France, Italy, Great Britain,
&c., each of which specified the maximum duties that could be
levied on certain articles, and all of which contained a " most
favoured nation " clause. The practical result was a system
very nearly approaching to the absence of any customs duties,
and for the period for which these treaties lasted a revision of the
tariff could not be carried out by means of legislation. After
the year 1873, a strong movement in favour of protective duties
made itself felt among the Austrian manufacturers who were
affected by the competition of German, English and Belgian
goods, and Austria was influenced by the general movement in
economic thought which about this time caused the reaction

1 Matlekovits, Die Zollpolitik der osterreichish-ungarischen
Monarchic (Leipzig, 1891), gives the Hungarian point of view;
Bazant, Die Handelspohtik Osterreich-Ungarns (1875-1892, Leipzig,
1894).

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

21

against the doctrines of free trade. Hungary, on the other hand,
was still in favour of free trade, for there were no important
manufacturing industries in that country, and it required a
secure market for agricultural produce. After 1875 the com-
mercial treaties expired; Hungary thereupon also gave notice
to terminate the commercial union with Austria, and negotiations
began as to the principle on which it was to be renewed. This
was done during the year 1877, ar"d in the new treaty, while raw
material was still imported free of duty, a low duty was placed
on textile goods as well as on corn, and the excise on sugar and
brandy was raised. All duties, moreover, were to be paid in
gold — this at once involving a considerable increase. The
tariff treaties with Great Britain and France were not renewed,
and all attempts to come to some agreement with Germany
broke down, owing to the change of policy which Bismarck
was adopting at this period. The result was that the system
of commercial treaties ceased, and Austria -Hungary was free
to introduce a fresh tariff depending simply on legislation,
an "autonomous tariff" as it is called. With Great Britain,
France and Germany, there was now only a " most favoured
nation " agreement; fresh commercial treaties were made with
Italy (1879), Switzerland and Servia (1881). During 1881-1882
Hungary, desiring means of retaliation against the duties on
corn and the impediments to the importation of cattle recently
introduced into Germany, withdrew her opposition to protective
duties; the tariff was completely revised, protective duties were
introduced on all articles of home production, and high finance
duties on other articles such as coffee and petroleum. At the
same time special privileges were granted to articles imported by
sea, so as to foster the trade of Trieste and Fiume; as in Germany
a subvention was granted to the great shipping companies,
the Austrian Lloyd and Adria; the area of the Customs Union
was enlarged so as to include Trieste, Istria and Dalmatia, as
well as Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1887 a further increase
of duties was laid on corn (this was at the desire of Hungary as
against Rumania, for a vigorous customs war was being carried
on at this time) and on woollen and textile goods. Austria,
therefore, during these years completely gave up the principle
of free trade, and adopted a nationalist policy similar to that
which prevailed in Germany. A peculiar feature of these
treaties was that the government was empowered to impose
an additional duty (Retorsionszott) on goods imported from
countries in which Austria-Hungary received unfavourable
treatment. In 1881 this was fixed at 10 % (5 % for some
articles), but in 1887 it was raised to 30 and 15 % respectively.
In 1892 Austria-Hungary joined with Germany, Italy, Belgium,
and Switzerland in commercial treaties to last for twelve years,
the object being to secure to the states of central Europe a stable
and extended market; for the introduction of high tariffs in
Russia and America had crippled industry. Two years later
Austria-Hungary also arranged with Russia a treaty similar
to that already made between Russia and Germany; the
reductions in the tariff secured in these treaties were applicable
also to Great Britain, with which there still was a most favoured
nation treaty. The system thus introduced gave commercial
security till the year 1903.

The result of these and other laws was an improvement in financial
conditions, which enabled the government at last to take in hand
Reform t'le long-delayed task of reforming the currency. Hitherto
ofthe *he currency had been partly in silver (gulden), the
currency. "Austrian currency " which had been introduced in 1857,
partly in paper money, which took the form of notes issued
by the Austro-Hungarian Bank. This institution had, in 1867,
belonged entirely to Austria; it had branches in Hungary, and its
notes were current throughout the monarchy, but the direction was
entirely Austrian. The Hungarians had not sufficient credit to
establish a national bank of their own, and at the settlement of 1877
they procured, as a concession to themselves, that it should be con-
verted into an Austro-Hungarian bank, with a head office at Pest
as well as at Vienna, and with the management divided between the
twocountries. This arrangement was renewed in 1887. Inl848the
government had been obliged to authorize the bank to suspend cash
payments, and the wars of 1859 and 1866 had rendered abortive all
attempts to renew them. The notes, therefore, formed an incon-
vertible paper currency. The bank by its charter had the sole right
of issuing notes, but during the war of 1866 the government, in order

to raise money, had 'itself issued notes (Staatsnoten) to the value of
312 million gulden, thereby violating the charter of the bank. The
operation begun in 1892 was therefore threefold : (i) the substitution
of a gold for a silver standard ; (2) the redemption of the Staatsnoten ;
(3) the resumption of cash payments by the bank.

In 1867 Austria-Hungary had taken part in the monetary confer-
ence which led to the formation of the Latin Union ; it was intended
to join the Union, but this was not done. A first step, however, had
been taken in this direction by the issue of gold coins of the value of
eight and four gulden. No attempt was made, however, to regulate
the relations of these coins to the " Austrian " silver coinage; the
two issues were not brought into connexion, and every payment
was made in silver, unless it was definitely agreed that it should be
paid in gold. In 1879, owing to the continued depreciation of silver,
the free coinage of silver was suspended. In 1892 laws introducing
a completely new coinage were carried in both parliaments, in accord-
ance with agreements made by the ministers. The unit in the new
issue was to be the krone, divided into 100 heller; the krone being
almost of thejsame value (24-25th) as the franc. (The twenty-krone
piece in gold weighs 6-775 f?r-. the twenty-franc piece 6-453.) The
gold krone was equal to -42 of the gold gulden, and it was declared
equal to -5 of the silver gulden, so much allowance being made for the
depreciation of silver. The first step towards putting this act into
practice was the issue of one-krone pieces (silver), which circulated
as half gulden, and of nickel coins; all the copper coins and other
silver coins were recalled, the silver gulden alone being left in cir-
culation. The coinage of the gold four- and eight-gulden was
suspended. Nothing more could DC done till the supply of gold had
been increased. The bank was required to buy gold (during 1892 it
bought over forty M. gulden), and was obliged to coin into twenty-
or ten-krone pieces all gold brought to it for that purpose. Then
a loan of 150 M. gulden at 4% was made, and from the gold (chiefly
bar gold and sovereigns) which Rothschild, who undertook the loan,
paid in, coins of the new issue were struck to the value of over 34
million kronen. This was, however, not put into circulation; it
was used first for paying off the Staatsnoten. By 1894 the state was
able to redeem them to the amount of 200 million gulden, including
all those for one gulden. It paid them, however, not in gold, but in
silver (one-krone pieces and gulden) and in bank notes, the coins and
notes being provided by the bank, and in exchange the newly-coined
gold was paid to the bank to be kept as a reserve to cover the issue
of notes. At the same time arrangements were made between Austria
and Hungary to pay off about 80 million of exchequer bills which had
been issued on the security of the government salt-works, and were
therefore called " salinenscheine." In 1899 the remainder of the
Staatsnoten (112 million gulden) were redeemed in a similar manner.
The bank had in this way acquired a large reserve of gold, and in the
new charter which was (after long delay) passed in 1899, a clause
was introduced requiring the resumption of cash payments, though
this was not to come into operation immediately. Then from
1st January 1900 the old reckoning by gulden was superseded, that
by krone being introduced in all government accounts, the new silver
being made a legal tender only for a limited amount. For the time
until the 1st of July 1908, however, the old gulden were left in cir-
culation, payments made in them, at the rate of two kronen to one
gulden, being legal up to any amount.

This important reform has thereby been brought to a satisfactory
conclusion, and at a time when the political difficulties had reached
a most acute stage. It is indeed remarkable that notwithstanding
the complicated machinery of the dual monarchy, and the numerous
obstacles which have to be overcome before a reform affecting both
countries can be carried out, the financial, the commercial, and the
foreign policy has been conducted since 1870 with success. The
credit of the state has risen, the chronic deficit has disappeared, the
currency has been put on a sound basis, and part of the unfunded
debt has been paid off. Universal military service has been intro-
duced, and alj this has been done in the presence of difficulties greater
than existed in any other civilized country.

Each of the financial and economic reforms described above
was, of course, the subject of a separate law, but, so far as they
are determined at the general settlement which takes The
place between Austria and Hungary every ten years, Autgieich
they are comprised under the expression " Ausgleich " wlth
(compact or compromise), which includes especially Hunxary-
the determination of the Quo'ta, and to this extent they are all
dealt with together as part of a general settlement and bargain.
In this settlement a concession on commercial policy would be
set off against a gain on the financial agreement; e.g. in 1877
Austria gave Hungary a share in the management of the bank,
whDe the arrangement for paying the bonus on exported sugar
was favourable to Austria; on the other hand, since the increased
duty on coffee and petroleum would fall more heavily on Austria,
the Austrians wished to persuade the Hungarians to pay a larger
quota of the common expenses, and there was also a dispute
whether Hungary was partly responsible for a debt of 80 M.

22

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

gulden to the bank. Each measure had, therefore, to be considered
not only on its own merits, but in relation to the general balance
of advantage, and an amendment in one might bring about
the rejection of all. The whole series of acts had to be carried
in two parliaments, each open to the influence of national
jealousy and race hatred in its most extreme form, so that the
negotiations have been conducted under serious difficulties, and
the periodical settlement has always been a time of great anxiety.
The first settlement occupied two full years, from 1876, when
the negotiations began, to June 1878, when at last all the bills
were carried successfully through the two parliaments; and it
was necessary to prolong the previous arrangements (which
expired at the end of 1877) till the middle of 1878. First the
two ministries had to agree on the drafts of all the bills; then
the bills had to be laid before the two parliaments. Each
parliament elected a committee to consider them, and the two
committees carried on long negotiations by notes supplemented
by verbal discussions. Then followed the debates in the two
parliaments; there was a ministerial crisis in Austria, because
the House refused to accept the tax on coffee and petroleum
which was recommended by the ministers; and finally a great
council of all the ministers, with the emperor presiding, deter-
mined the compromise that was at last accepted. In 1887
things went better; there was some difficulty about the tariff,
especially about the tax on petroleum, but Count Taaffe had a
stronger position than the Austrian ministers of 1877. Ten
years later, on the third renewal, the difficulties were still greater.
They sprang from a double cause. First the Austrians were
determined to get a more favourable division of the common
expenses; that of 1867 still continued, although Hungary had
grown relatively in wealth.1 Moreover, a proposed alteration
in the taxes on sugar would be of considerable advantage to
Hungary; the Austrians, therefore, demanded that henceforth
the proportion should be not 68-6:31-4 but 58:42. On this
there was a deadlock; all through 1897 and 1898 the Quota-
Deputations failed to come to an agreement. This, however,
was not the worst. Parliamentary government in Austria had
broken down; the opposition had recourse to obstruction, and
no business could be done. Their object was to drive out the
Badeni government, and for that reason the obstruction was
chiefly directed against the renewal of the Ausgleich; for,
as this was the first necessity of state, no government could
remain in office which failed to carry it through. The extreme
parties of the Germans and the antf-Semites were also, for racial
reasons, opposed to the whole system. When, therefore, the
government at the end of 1897 introduced the necessary measures
for prolonging the existing arrangements provisionally till the
differences with Hungary had been settled, scenes of great dis-
order ensued, and at the end of the year the financial arrange-
ments had not been prolonged, and neither the bank charter
nor the Customs Union had been renewed. The government,
therefore (Badeni having resigned) , had to proclaim the necessary
measures by imperial warrant. Next year it was even worse,
for there was obstruction in Hungary as well as in Austria; the
Quota-Deputations again came to no agreement, and the pro-
posals for the renewal of the Bank charter, the reform of the
currency, the renewal of the Customs Union, and the new taxes
on beer and brandy, which were laid before parliament both
at Vienna and Pest, were not carried in either country; this time,
therefore, the existing arrangements had to be prolonged pro-
visionally by imperial and royal warrant both in Austria and
Hungary. During 1899 parliamentary peace was restored in
Hungary by the resignation of Banffy; in Austria, however,
though there was again a change, of ministry the only result
was that the Czechs imitated the example of the Germans and
resorted to obstruction so that still no business could be done.
The Austrian ministry, therefore, came to an agreement with the
Hungarians that the terms of the new Ausgleich should be

1 The only change was that as the military frontier had been given
over to Hungary, Hungary in consequence of this addition of terri-
tory had to pay 2%, the remaining 98% being divided as before,
so that the real proportion was 31-4 and 68-6.

finally proclaimed in Austria by imperial warrant; the
Hungarians only giving their assent to this in return for con-
siderable financial concessions.

The main points of the agreement were: (l) the Bank charter
was to be renewed till 1910, the Hungarians receiving a larger
share in the direction than they had hitherto enjoyed; (2) the
Customs Union so far as it was based on a reciprocal and binding
treaty lapsed, both sides, however, continuing it in practice, and
promising to do so until the 3ist of December 1907. Not later than
1901 negotiations were to be begun for a renewal of the alliance,
and if possible it was to be renewed from the year 1903, in which
year the commercial treaties would expire. If this were done, then
the tariff would be revised before any fresh commercial treaties were
made. If it were not done, then no fresh treaties would be made
extending beyond the year 1907, so that if the Commercial Union of
Austria and Hungary were not renewed before 1907, each party
would be able to determine its own policy unshackled by any previous
treaties. These arrangements in Hungary received the sanction of
the parliament; but this could not be procured in Austria, and they
were, therefore, proclaimed by imperial warrant; first of all, on
2Oth July, the new duties on beer, brandy and sugar; then on
23rd September the Bank charter, &c. In November the Quota-
Deputations at last agreed that Hungary should henceforward pay
33 j\, a very small increase, and this was also in Austria proclaimed
in the same way. The result was that a working agreement was
made, by which the Union was preserved. (J. W. HE.)

Since the years 1866-1871 no period of Austro-Hungarian
development has been so important as the years 1903-1907.
The defeat of the old Austria by Prussia at Sadowa Aastm,
in 1866, the establishment of the Dual Monarchy Hungarian
in 1867 and the foundation of the new German empire crisis,
in 1 87 1, formed the starting-point of Austro-Hungarian 1W)3-
history properly so called; but the Austro-Hungarian
crisis of 1903-1906 — a crisis temporarily settled but not defini-
tively solved, — and the introduction of universal suffrage in
Austria, discredited the. original interpretation of the dual
system and raised the question whether it represented the
permanent form of the Austro-Hungarian polity.

At the close of the igth century both states of the Dual
Monarchy were visited by political crises of some severity.
Parliamentary life in Austria was paralysed by the feud between
Germans and Czechs that resulted directly from the Badeni
language ordinances of 1897 and indirectly from the development
of Slav influence, particularly that of Czechs and Poles during
the Taaffe era (1879-1893). Government in Austria was carried
on by cabinets of officials with the help of the emergency
clause (paragraph 14) of the constitution. Ministers, nominally
responsible to parliament, were in practice responsible only to
the emperor. Thus during the closing years of last and the
opening years of the present century, political life in Austria
was at a low ebb and the constitution was observed in the
letter rather than in spirit.

Hungary was apparently better situated. Despite the campaign
of obstruction that overthrew the Banffy and led to the formation
of the Szell cabinet in 1899, the hegemony of the Liberal party
which, under various names, had been the mainstay of dualism
since 1867, appeared to be unshaken. But clear signs of the
decay of the dualist and of the growth of an extreme nationalist
Magyar spirit were already visible. The Army bills of 1889,
which involved an increase of the peace footing of the joint
Austro-Hungarian army, had been carried with difficulty,
despite the efforts of Koloman Tisza and of Count Julius Andrassy
the Elder. Demands tending towards the Magyarization of
the joint army had been advanced and had found such an echo
in Magyar public opinion that Count Andrassy was obliged
solemnly to warn the country of the dangers of nationalist
Chauvinism and to remind it of its obligations under the Compact
of 1867. The struggle over the civil marriage and divorce laws
that filled the greater part of the nineties served and was perhaps
intended by the Liberal leaders to serve as a diversion in favour
of the Liberal-dualist standpoint; nevertheless, Nationalist
feeling found strong expression during the negotiations of
Banffy and Szell with various Austrian premiers for the renewal
of the economic Ausgleich, or " Customs and Trade Alliance."
At the end of 1902 the Hungarian premier, Szell, concluded with
the Austrian premier, K6rber,a new customs and trade alliance

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

comprising a joint Austro-Hungarian tariff as a basis for the
negotiation of new commercial treaties with Germany, Italy
and other states. This arrangement, which for the sake of
ibrevity will henceforth beref erred to as the Szfill-Korber Compact,
was destined to play an important part in the history of the
next few years, though it was never fully ratified by either
parliament and was ultimately discarded. Its conclusion was
prematurely greeted as the end of a period of economic strife
between the two halves of the monarchy and as a pledge of a
decade of peaceful development. Events were soon to demon-
strate the baselessness of these hopes.

In the autumn of 1902 the Austrian and the Hungarian
igovernments, at the instance of the crown and in agreement
with the joint minister for war and the Austrian and
Hungarian ministers for national defence, laid before
their respective parliaments bills providing for an
increase of 21,000 men in the annual contingents of recruits.
16,700 men were needed for the joint army, and the remainder
for the Austrian and Hungarian national defence troops (Land-
wehr and honved). The total contribution of Hungary would
have been some 6500 and of Austria some 14,500 men. The
military authorities made, however, the mistake of detaining
in barracks several thousand supernumerary recruits (i.e.
recruits liable to military service but in excess of the annual
103,000 enrollable by law) pending the adoption of the Army
bills by the two parliaments. The object of this apparently
high-handed step was to avoid the expense and delay of summon-
ing the supernumeraries again to the colours when the bills
should have received parliamentary sanction; but it was not
unnaturally resented by the Hungarian Chamber, which has
ever possessed a lively sense of its prerogatives. The Opposition ,
consisting chiefly of the independence party led by Francis
Kossuth (eldest son of Louis Kossuth), made capital out of the
grievance and decided to obstruct ministerial measures until
the supernumeraries should be discharged. The estimates
•could not be sanctioned, and though Kossuth granted the Szell
cabinet a vote on account for the first four months of 1903, the
Government found itself at the mercy of the Opposition. At
the end of 1902 the supernumeraries were discharged — too late
to calm the ardour of the Opposition, which proceeded to demand
that the Army bills should be entirely withdrawn or that, if
adopted, they should be counterbalanced by concessions to
Magyar nationalist feeling calculated to promote the use of the
Magyar language in the Hungarian part of the army and to
render the Hungarian regiments, few of which are purely Magyar,
more and more Magyar in character. Szell, who vainly advised
the crown and the military authorities to make timely conces-
sions, was obliged to reject these demands which enjoyed the
secret support of Count Albert Apponyi, the Liberal president
of the Chamber and of his adherents. The obstruction of the
estimates continued. On the ist of May the Szell cabinet found
itself without supply and governed for a time " ex-lex "; Szell,
who had lost the confidence of the crown, resigned and was
succeeded (June 26) by Count Khuen-Hedervary, previously
ban, or governor, of Croatia. Before taking office Khuen-
Hedervary negotiated with Kossuth and other Opposition
leaders, who undertook that obstruction should cease if the
Army bills were withdrawn. Despite the fact that the Austrian
Army bill had been voted by the Reichsrath (February 19),
the crown consented to withdraw the bills and thus compelled
the Austrian parliament to repeal, at the dictation of the Hun-
garian obstructionists, what it regarded as a patriotic measure.
Austrian feeling became embittered towards Hungary and the
action of the crown was openly criticized.

Meanwhile the Hungarian Opposition broke its engagement.
Obstruction was continued by a section of the independence
The party; and Kossuth, seeing his authority ignored,

Magyar resigned the leadership. The obstructionists now
words of raised the cry that the German words of command

•MM m tne jojnt army must be replaced by Magyar words
in the regiments recruited from Hungary — a demand which,
apart from its disintegrating influence on the army, the crown

considered to be an encroachment upon the royal military
prerogatives as defined by the Hungarian Fundamental Law
XII. of 1867. Clause n of the law runs: — " In pursuance of
the constitutional military prerogatives of His Majesty, every-
thing relating to the unitary direction, leadership and inner
organization of the whole army, and thus also of the Hungarian
army as a complementary part of the whole army, is recognized
as subject to His Majesty's disposal." The cry for the Magyar
words of command on which the subsequent constitutional
crisis turned, was tantamount to a demand that the monarch
should differentiate the Hungarian from the Austrian part of
the joint army, and should render it impossible for any but
Magyar officers to command Hungarian regiments, less than
half of which have a majority of Magyar recruits. The partisans
of the Magyar words of command based their claim upon clause
12 of the Fundamental Law XII. of 1867 — which runs: —
" Nevertheless the country reserves its right periodically to
complete the Hungarian army and the right of granting recruits,
the fixing of the conditions on which the recruits are granted, the
fixing of the term of service and all the dispositions concerning
the stationing and the supplies of the troops according to existing
law both as regards legislation and administration." Since
Hungary reserved her right to fix the conditions on which
recruits should be granted, the partisans of the Magyar words
of command argued that the abolition of the German words
of command in the Hungarian regiments might be made such
a condition, despite the enumeration in the preceding clause n,
of everything appertaining to the unitary leadership and inner
organization of the joint Austro-Hungarian army as belong-
ing to the constitutional military prerogatives of the crown.
Practically, the dispute was a trial of strength between Magyar
nationalist feeling and the crown. Austrian feeling strongly
supported the monarch in his determination to defend the unity
of the army, and the conflict gradually acquired an intensity
that appeared to threaten the very existence of the dual system.

When Count Khuen-Hedervary took office and Kossuth
relinquished the leadership of the independence party, the ex-
tension of the crisis could not be foreseen. A few extreme
nationalists continued to obstruct the estimates, and it appeared
as though their energy would soon flag. An attempt to quicken
this process by bribery provoked, however, an outburst of feeling
against Khuen-Hedervary who, though personally innocent,
found his position shaken. Shortly afterwards Magyar resent-
ment of an army order issued from the cavalry manoeuvres at
Chlopy in Galicia — in which the monarch declared that he would
" hold fast to the existing and well-tried organization of the
army" and would never "relinquish the rights and privileges
guaranteed to its highest war-lord"; and of a provocative
utterance of the Austrian premier Korber in the Reichsrath
led to the overthrow of the Khuen-Hedervary cabinet (September
30) by an immense majority. The cabinet fell on a motion of
censure brought forward by Kossuth, who had profited by the
bribery incident to resume the leadership of his party.

An interval of negotiation between the crown and many
leading Magyar Liberals followed, until at the end of October 1 903
Count Stephen Tisza, son of Koloman Tisza, accepted
a mission to form a cabinet after all others had declined.
As programme Tisza brought with him a number
of concessions from the crown to Magyar nationalist feeling
in regard to military matters, particularly in regard to military
badges, penal procedure, the transfer of officers of Hungarian
origin from Austrian to Hungarian regiments, the establishment
of military scholarships for Magyar youths and the introduction
of the two years' service system. In regard to the military
language, the Tisza programme — which, having been drafted
by a committee of nine members, is known as the " programme
of the nine " — declared that the responsibility of the cabinet
extends to the military prerogatives of the crown, and that
" the legal influence of parliament exists in this respect as in
respect of every constitutional right." The programme, however,
expressly excluded for " weighty political reasons affecting
great interests of the nation " the question of the military

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

language; and on Tisza's motion the Liberal party adopted
an addendum, sanctioned by the crown: " the party maintains
the standpoint that the king has a right to fix the language of
service and command in the Hungarian army on the basis of his
constitutional prerogatives as recognized in clause 1 1 of law XII.
of 1867."

Notwithstanding the concessions, obstruction was continued
by the Clericals and the extreme Independents, partly in the
hope of compelling the crown to grant the Magyar words of
command and partly out of antipathy towards the person of
the young calvinist premier. In March 1904, Tisza, therefore,
introduced a drastic " guillotine " motion to amend the standing
orders of the House, but withdrew it in return for an undertaking
from the Opposition that obstruction would cease. This time
the Opposition kept its word. The Recruits bill and the estimates
were adopted, the Delegations were enabled to meet at Budapest
— where they voted £22,000,000 as extraordinary estimates for
the army and navy and especially for the renewal of the field
artillery — and the negotiations for new commercial treaties
with Germany and Italy were sanctioned, although parliament
had never been able to ratify the Szell-Korber compact with
the tariff on the basis of which the negotiations would have to
be conducted. But, as the autumn session approached, Tisza
foresaw a new campaign of obstruction, and resolved to revert
to his drastic reform of the standing orders. The announcement
of his determination caused the Opposition to rally against him,
and when on the i8th of November the Liberal party adopted
a " guillotine " motion by a show of hands in defiance of orthodox
procedure, a section of the party seceded. On the i3th of
December the Opposition, infuriated by the formation of a special
corps of parliamentary constables, invaded and wrecked the
Chamber. Tisza appealed to the country and suffered, on the
26th of January 1905, an overwhelming defeat at the hands
of a coalition composed of dissentient Liberals, Clericals, In-
dependents and a few Banffyites. The Coalition gained an
absolute majority and the Independence party became the
strongest political group. Nevertheless the various adherents
of the dual system retained an actual majority in the Chamber
and prevented the Independence party from attempting to
realize its programme of reducing the ties between Hungary and
Austria to the person of the joint ruler. On the 2$th of January,
the day before his defeat, Count Tisza had signed on behalf
of Hungary the new commercial treaties concluded by the
Austro-Hungarian foreign office with Germany and Italy on
the basis of the Szell-Korber tariff. He acted ultra vires, but by
his act saved Hungary from a severe economic crisis and retained
for her the right to benefit by economic partnership with Austria
until the expiry of the new treaties in 1917.

A deadlock, lasting from January 1905 until April 1906,
ensued between the crown and Hungary and, to a great extent,
Dead/ * Between Hungary and Austria. The Coalition, though
of'iyos. possessing the majority in the Chamber, resolved not
to take office unless the crown should grant its demands,
including the Magyar words of command and customs
separation from Austria. The crown declined to concede these
points, either of which would have wrecked the dual system as
interpreted since 1867. The Tisza cabinet could not be relieved
of its functions till June 1905, when it was succeeded by a non-
parliamentary administration under the premiership of General
Baron Fejervary, formerly minister for national defence. Seeing
that the Coalition would not take office on acceptable terms,
Fejervary obtained the consent of the crown to a scheme,
drafted by Kristoffy, minister of the interior, that the dispute
between the crown and the Coalition should be subjected to
the test of universal suffrage and that to this end the franchise
in Hungary be radically reformed. The scheme alarmed the
Coalition, which saw that universal suffrage might destroy not
only the hegemony of the Magyar nobility and gentry in whose
hands political power was concentrated, but might, by admitting
the non-Magyars to political equality with the Magyars, under-
mine the supremacy of the Magyar race itself. Yet the Coalition
did not yield at once. Not until the Chamber had been dissolved

by military force (February 19, 1906) and an open breach of the
constitution seemed within sight did they come to terms with
the crown and form an administration. The miserable state
of public finances and the depression of trade doubtless helped
to induce them to perform a duty which they ought to have
performed from the first; but their chief motive was the desire
to escape the menace of universal suffrage or, at least, to make
sure that it would be introduced in such a form as to safeguard
Magyar supremacy over the other Hungarian races.

The pact concluded (April 8, 1906) between the Coalition and
the crown is known to have contained the following conditions: —
All military questions to be suspended until after the
introduction of universal suffrage; the estimates 1906°
and the normal contingent of recruits to be voted for
1905 and 1906; the extraordinary military credits, sanctioned
by the delegations in 1904, to be voted by the Hungarian
Chamber; ratification of the commercial treaties concluded
by Tisza; election of the Hungarian Delegation and of the
Quota-Deputation; introduction of a suffrage reform at least
as far reaching as the Kristoffy scheme. These " capitulations "
obliged the Coalition government to carry on a dualist policy,
although the majority of its adherents became, by the general
election of May 1906, members of the Kossuth or Independence
party, and, as such, pledged to the economic and political
separation of Hungary from Austria save as regards the person
of the ruler. Attempts were, however, made to emphasize the
independence of Hungary. During the deadlock (June 2, 1905)
Kossuth had obtained the adoption of a motion to authorize
the compilation of an autonomous Hungarian tariff, and on the
28th of May 1906, the Coalition cabinet was authorized by the
crown to present the Szell-Korber tariff to the Chamber in the
form of a Hungarian autonomous tariff distinct from but identical
with the Austrian tariff. This concession of form having been
made to the Magyars without the knowledge of the Austrian
government, Prince Konrad Hohenlohe, the Austrian premier,
resigned office; and his successor, Baron Beck, eventually
(July 6) withdrew from the table of the Reichsrath the whole
Szell-Korber compact, declaring that the only remaining
economic ties between the two countries were freedom of trade,
the commercial treaties with foreign countries, the joint state
bank and the management of excise. If the Hungarian govern-
ment wished to regulate its relationship to Austria in a more
definite form, added the Austrian premier, it must conclude a
new agreement before the end of the year 1907, when the recipro-
city arrangement of 1899 would lapse. The Hungarian govern-
ment replied that any new arrangement with Austria must be
concluded in the form of a commercial treaty as between two
foreign states and not in the form of a " customs and trade
alliance."

Austria ultimately consented to negotiate on this basis.
In October 1907 an agreement was attained, thanks chiefly to
the sobering of Hungarian opinion by a severe economic
crisis, which brought out with unusual clearness the
fact that separation from Austria would involve a 1907.
period of distress if not a commercial ruin for Hungary.
Austria also came to see that separation from Hungary would
seriously enhance the cost of living in Cisleithania and would
deprive Austrian manufacturers of their best market. The
main features of the new " customs and commercial treaty "
were: (i) Each state to possess a separate but identical customs
tariff. (2) Hungary to facilitate the establishment of direct
railway communication between Vienna and Dalmatia, the
communication to be established by the end of 1911, each state
building the sections of line that passed through its own territory.
(3) Austria to facilitate railway communication between Hungary
and Prussia. (4) Hungary to reform her produce and Stock
Exchange laws so as to prevent speculation in agrarian produce.
(5) A court of arbitration to be established for the settlement
of differences between the two states, Hungary selecting four
Austrian and Austria four Hungarian judges, the presidency of
the court being decided by lot, and each government being repre-
sented before the court by its own delegates. (6) Impediments

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

to free trade in sugar to be practically abolished. (7) Hungary
to be entitled to redeem her share of the old Austrian debt
(originally bearing interest at 5 and now at 4-2%) at the
rate of 4-325% within the next ten years; if not redeemed
within ten years the rate of capitalization to decrease annually
by i1! % until it reaches 4-2 %. This arrangement represents a
potential economy of some £2,000,000 capital for Hungary as
compared with the original Austrian demand that the Hungarian
contribution to the service of the old Austrian debt be capitalized
at 4-2 %. (8) The securities of the two governments to rank
as investments for savings banks, insurance companies and
similar institutions in both countries, but not as trust fund
investments. (9) Commercial treaties with foreign countries
to be negotiated, not, as hitherto, by the joint minister for
foreign affairs alone, but also by a nominee of each government.
(10) The quota of Austrian and Hungarian contribution to
joint expenditure to be 63-6 and 36-4 respectively — an increase
of 2 % in the Hungarian quota, equal to some £200,000 a year.

The economic dispute between Hungary and Austria was thus
settled for ten years after negotiations lasting more than twelve
years. One important question, however, that of the future of
the joint State Bank, was left over for subsequent decision.
During the negotiations for the customs and commercial treaty,
the Austrian government attempted to conclude for a longer
period than ten years, but was unable to overcome Hungarian
resistance. Therefore, at the end of 1917, the commercial
treaties with Germany, Italy and other countries, and the Austro-
Hungarian customs and commercial treaty, would all lapse.
Ten years of economic unity remained during which the Dual
Monarchy might grow together or grow asunder, increasing
accordingly in strength or in weakness. (H. W. S.)

During this period of internal crisis the international position
of the Dual Monarchy was threatened by two external dangers.
The unrest in Macedonia threatened to reopen the Eastern
Question in an acute form; with Italy the irredentist attitude
of the Zanardelli cabinet led in 1902-1903 to such strained
relations that war seemed imminent. The southern Tirol, the
chief passes into Italy, strategic points on the Istrian and
Dalmatian coasts, were strongly fortified, while in the interior
the Tauern, Karawanken and Wochein railways were constructed,
partly in order to facilitate the movement of troops towards the
Italian border. The tension was relaxed with the fall of the
Zanardelli government, and comparatively cordial relations
were gradually re-established.

In the affairs of the Balkan Peninsula a temporary agreement
with Russia was reached in 1903 by the so-called " February
Programme," supplemented in the following October
crisis. by the " Miirzsteg Programme" (see MACEDONIA;
TURKEY; EUROPE: History). The terms of theMurzsteg
programme were observed by Count Goluchowski, in spite of
the ruin of Russian prestige in the war with Japan, so long as
he remained in office. In October 1906, however, he retired,
and it was soon clear that his successor, Baron von Aerenthal,1
was determined to take advantage of the changed European
situation to take up once more the traditional policy of the
Habsburg monarchy in the Balkan Peninsula. He gradually
departed from the Miirzsteg basis, and in January 1908
deliberately undermined the Austro-Russian agreement by
obtaining from the sultan a concession for a railway from the
Bosnian frontier through the sanjak of Novibazar to the Turkish
terminus at Mitrovitza. This was done in the teeth of the
expressed wish of Russia; it roused the helpless resentment
of Servia, whose economic dependence upon the Dual Monarchy
was emphasized by the outcome of the war of tariffs into which
she had plunged in 1906, and who saw in this scheme another
link in the chain forged for her by the Habsburg empire; it

1 Alois, Count Lexa von Aerenthal, was born on the 27th of
September 1854 at Gross-Skal in Bohemia, studied at Bonn and
Prague, was attach^ at Paris (1877) and afterwards at St Petersburg,
envoy extraordinary at Bucharest (1895) and ambassador at St
Petersburg (1896). He was created a count on the emperor's 79th
birthday in 1909.

offended several of the great powers, who seemed to see in this
railway concession the price of the abandonment by Austria-
Hungary of her interest in Macedonian reforms. That Baron
von Aerenthal was able to pursue a policy apparently so rash,
was due to the fact that he could reckon on the support of
Germany. The intimate relations between the two powers
had been revealed during the dispute between France and
Germany about Morocco; in the critical division of the 3rd
of March 1906 at the Algeciras Conference Austria-Hungary,
alone of all the powers, had sided with Germany, and it was a
proposal of the Austro-Hungarian plenipotentiary that formed
the basis of the ultimate settlement between Germany and
France (see MOROCCO: History). The cordial relations thus
emphasized encouraged Baron Aerenthal, in the autumn of

1908, to pursue a still bolder policy. The revolution in Turkey
had entirely changed the face of the Eastern Question; the
problem of Macedonian reform was swallowed up in that of the
reform of the Ottoman empire generally, there was even a
danger that a rejuvenated Turkey might in time lay claim to
the provinces occupied by Austria-Hungary under the treaty
of Berlin ; in any case, the position of these provinces, governed
autocratically from Vienna, between a constitutional Turkey
and a constitutional Austria-Hungary, would have been highly
anomalous. In the circumstances Baron Aerenthal determined
on a bold policy. Without consulting the co-signatory powers
of the treaty of Berlin, and in deliberate violation cf its provisions,
the king-emperor issued, on the I3th of October, a decree
annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Habsburg Monarchy,
and at the same time announcing the withdrawal of the Austro-
Hungarian troops from the sanjak of Novibazar. (See EUROPE :
History.)

Meanwhile the relations between the two halves of the Dual
Monarchy had again become critical. The agreement of 1907
had been but a truce in the battle between two
irreconcilable principles : between Magyar nationalism, JJ//JJL™'
determined to maintain its ascendancy in an inde- cuttles.
pendent Hungary, and Habsburg imperialism, equally
determined to preserve the economic and military unity of the
Dual Monarchy. In this conflict the tactical advantage lay
with the monarchy; for the Magyars were in a minority in
Hungary, their ascendancy was based on a narrow and artificial
franchise, and it was open to the king-emperor to hold in terrorem
over them an appeal to the disfranchised majority. It was the
introduction of a Universal Suffrage Bill by Mr Joseph Kristoffy,
minister of the interior in the " unconstitutional " cabinet of
Baron Fejervary, which brought the Opposition leaders in the
Hungarian parliament to terms and made possible the agreement
of 1907. But the Wekerle ministry which succeeded that of
Fejervary on the 9th of April 1906 contained elements which
made any lasting compromise impossible. The burning question
of the " Magyar word of command " remained unsettled, save
in so far as the fixed determination of the king-emperor had
settled it; the equally important question of the renewal of
the charter of the Austro-Hungarian State Bank had also
formed no part of the agreement of 1907. On the other hand,
the Wekerle ministry was pledged to a measure of franchise
reform, a pledge which they showed no eagerness to redeem,
though the granting of universal suffrage in the Austrian half
of the Monarchy had made such a change inevitable. In March
1908 Mr Hallo laid before the Hungarian parliament a formal
proposal that the charter of the Austro-Hungarian Bank, which
was to expire at the end of 1910, should not be renewed; and
that, in the event of failure to negotiate a convention between
the banks of Austria and Hungary, a separate Hungarian Bank
should be established. This question, obscured during the winter
by the Balkan crisis, once more became acute in the spring of

1909. In the Coalition cabinet itself opinion was sharply divided,
but in the end the views of the Independence party prevailed,
and Dr Wekerle laid the proposal for a separate Hungarian
Bank before the king-emperor and the Austrian government.
Its reception was significant. The emperor Francis Joseph
pointed out that the question of a separate Bank for Hungary

26

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

did not figure in the act of 1867, and could not be introduced
into it, especially since the capital article of the ministerial pro-
gramme, i.e. electoral reform, was not realized, nor near being
realized. This was" tantamount to an appeal from the Magyar
populus to the Hungarian plebs, the disfranchised non-Magyar
majority; an appeal all the more significant from the fact that
it ignored the suffrage bill brought in on behalf of the Hungarian
government by Count Julius Andrissy in November 1908, a bill
which, under the guise of granting the principle of universal
suffrage, was ingeniously framed so as to safeguard and even
to extend Magyar ascendancy (see HUNGARY: History). In
consequence of this rebuff Dr Wekerle tendered his resignation
on the zyth of April. Months passed without it being possible
to form a new cabinet, and a fresh period of crisis and agitation
was begun. (W. A. P.)

II. Austria Proper since 1867.

As already explained, the name Austria is used for convenience
to designate those portions of the possessions of the house of
Habsburg, which were not included by the settlement of 1867
among the lands of the Hungarian crown. The separation of
Hungary made it necessary to determine the method by which
these territories1 were henceforth to be governed. It was the
misfortune of the country that there was no clear legal basis
on which new institutions could be erected. Each of the terri-
tories was a separate political unit with a separate history, and
some of them had a historic claim to a large amount of self-
government; in many the old feudal estates had survived till
1848. Since that year the empire had been the subject of
numerous experiments in government; by the last, which
began in 1860, Landtage or diets have been instituted in each
of the territories on a nearly uniform system and with nearly
identical powers, and by the constitution published in February
1861 (the February Constitution, as it is called), which is still
Tae the ultimate basis for the government, there was

February instituted a Reichsrath or parliament for the whole
Constitu- empire; it consisted of a House of Lords (Herren-
haus), in which sat the archbishops and prince bishops,
members of the imperial family, and other members appointed
for life, besides some hereditary members, and a Chamber of
Deputies. The members of the latter for each territory were
not chosen by direct election, but by the diets. The diets
themselves were elected for six years; they were chosen generally
(there were slight local differences) in the following way: (a)
a certain number of bishops and rectors of universities sat in
virtue of their office; (fr) the rest of the members were chosen
by four electoral bodies or curiae, — (i) the owners of estates
which before 1848 had enjoyed certain feudal privileges, the
so-called great proprietors; (2) the chambers of commerce;
(3) the towns; (4) the rural districts. In the two latter classes
all had the suffrage who paid at least ten gulden in direct taxes.
The districts were so arranged as to give the towns a very large
representation in proportion to their populations. In Bohemia,
e.g., the diet consisted of 241 members: of these five were
ex officio members; the feudal proprietors had seventy; the
towns and chambers of commerce together had eighty -seven ;
the rural districts seventy-nine. The electors in the rural
districts were 236,000, in the towns 93,000. This arrangement
seems to have been deliberately made by Schmerling, so as to

1 It is impossible to avoid using the word " Austria " to designate
these territories, though it is probably incorrect. Officially the word
" Austria " is not found, and though the sovereign is emperor of
Austria, an Austrian empire appears not to exist ; the territories are
spoken of in official documents as " the kingdoms and lands repre-
sented in the Reichsrath." The Hungarians and the German party
in Austria have expressed their desire that the word Austria should
be used, but it has not been gratified. On the other hand, expressions
such as " Austrian citizens," " Austrian law " are found. The
reason of this peculiar use is probably twofold. On the one hand, a
reluctance to confess that Hungary is no longer in any sense a part
of Austria; on the other hand, the refusal of the Czechs to recognize
that their country is part of Austria. Sometimes the word Erbldnder,
which properly is applied only to the older ancestral dominions of the
house«of Habsburg, is used for want of a better word.

give greater power to the German inhabitants of the towns;
the votes of the proprietors would, moreover, nearly always give
the final decision to the court and the government, for the
influence exercised by the government over the nobility would
generally be strong enough to secure a majority in favour of the
government policy.

This constitution had failed; territories so different in size,,
history and circumstances were not contented with similar
institutions, and a form of self-government which satisfied
Lower Austria and Salzburg did not satisfy Galicia and Bohemia.
The Czechs of Bohemia, like the Magyars, had refused to recog-
nize the common parliament on the ground that it violated the
historic rights of the Bohemian as of the Hungarian crown,
and in 1865 the constitution of 1861 had been superseded, while
the territorial diets remained. In 1867 it was necessary once
more to summon, in some form or another, a common parliament
for the whole of Austria, by which the settlement with Hungary
could be ratified.

This necessity brought to a decisive issue the struggle between
the parties of the Centralists and Federalists. The latter
claimed that the new constitution must be made by centra/-
agreement with the territories; the former maintained /sts ana
that the constitution of 1861 was still valid, and Federal-
demanded that in accordance with it the Reichsrath '***'
should be summoned and a " constitutional " government
restored. The difference between the two parties was to a great
extent, though not entirely, one of race. The kernel of the
empire was the purely German district, including Upper and
Lower Austria, Salzburg, Tirol (except the south) and Vorarlberg,.
all Styria except the southern districts, and a large part of
Carinthia. There was strong local feeling, especially in Tirol,
but it was local feeling similar to that which formerly existed
in the provinces of France; among all classes and parties there
was great loyalty both to the ruling house and to the idea of the
Austrian state; but while the Liberal party, which was dominant
in Lower Austria and Styria, desired to develop the central
institutions, there was a strong Conservative and Clerical party
which supported local institutions as a protection against the
Liberal influence of a centralized parliament and bureaucracy,
and the bishops and clergy were willing to gain support in the
struggle by alliance with the Federalists.

Very different was it in the other territories where the majority
of the population was not German — and where there was a
lively recollection of the time when they were not
Austrian. With Palacky, they said, " We existed g
before Austria; we shall continue to exist after it lands.
is gone." Especially was this the case in Bohemia.
In this great country, the richest part of the Austrian dominions,
where over three-fifths of the population were Czech, racial
feeling was supported by the appeal to historic law. A great
party, led by Palacky and Rieger, demanded the restoration of
the Bohemian monarchy in its fullest extent, including Moravia
and Silesia, and insisted that the emperor should be crowned
as king of Bohemia at Prague as his predecessors had been, and
that Bohemia should have a position in the monarchy similar
to that obtained by Hungary. Not only did the party include
all the Czechs, but they were supported by many of the great
nobles who were of German descent, including Count Leo Thun,
his brother-in-law Count Heinrich Clam-Martinitz, and Prince
Friedrich von Schwarzenberg, cardinal archbishop of Prague,
who hoped in a self-governing kingdom of Bohemia to preserve
that power which was threatened by the German Liberals. The
feudal nobles had great power arising from their wealth, the
great traditions of their families, and the connexion with the
court, and by the electoral law they had a large number of
representatives in the diet. On the other hand the Germans
of Bohemia, fearful of falling under the control of the Czechs,
were the most ardent advocates of centralization. The Czechs
were supported also by their fellow-countrymen in Moravia,
and some of the nobles, headed by Count Belcredi, brother of
the minister; but in Briinn there was a strong German party.
In Silesia the Germans had a considerable majority, and as

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

27

there was a large Polish element which did not support the
Czechs, the diet refused to recognize the claims of the
Bohemians.

The Poles of Galicia stood apart from the other Slav races.
The German-speaking population was very small, consisting
chiefly of government officials, railway servants and Jews;
but there was a large minority (some 43%) of Ruthenes. The
Poles wished to gain as much autonomy as they could for their
own province, but they had no interest in opposing the central-
ization of other parts; they were satisfied if Austria would
surrender the Ruthenes to them. They were little influenced
by the pan-Slav agitation; it was desirable for them that
Austria, which gave them freedom and power, should continue
strong and united. Their real interests were outside the
monarchy, and they did not cease to look forward to a restoration
of the Polish kingdom. The great danger was that they might
entangle Austria in a war with Russia.

The southern Slavs had neither the unity, nor the organization,
nor the historical traditions of the Czechs and Poles; but the
Slovenes, who formed a large majority of the population in
Carniola, and a considerable minority in the adjoining territory
of Carinthia and the south of Styria, demanded that their
language should be used for purposes of government and educa-
tion. Their political ideal was an " Illyrian " kingdom, including
Croatia and all the southern Slavs in the coast district, and a
not very successful movement had been started to establish a
so-called Illyrian language, which should be accepted by both
Croats and Slovenes. There was, however, another element in
the southern districts, viz. the Serbs, who, though of the same
race and language as the Croats, were separated from them by
religion. Belonging to the Orthodox Church they were attracted
by Russia. They were in constant communication with Servia
and Montenegro; and their ultimate hope, the creation of a
great Servian kingdom, was less easy to reconcile with loyalty
to Austria. Of late years attempts have been made to turn the
Slovenian national movement into this direction, and to attract
the Slovenes also towards the Orthodox non-Austrian Slavs.

In the extreme south of Dalmatia is a small district which had
not formed part of the older duchy of Dalmatia, and had not been
South joined to the Austrian empire till 1814; in former years
ntimniia Part °f 't formed the republic of Ragusa, and the rest

Mjaltaalta, { . . ,, . <ni •» i • ft>

belonged to Albania. The inhabitants of this part, who
chiefly belonged to the Greek Church, still kept up a close connexion
with Albania and with Montenegro, and Austrian authority was
maintained with difficulty. Disturbances had already broken out
once before; and in 1869 another outbreak took place. This district
had hitherto been exempted from military service; by the law of
1869, which introduced universal military service, those who had
hitherto been exempted were required to serve, not in the regular
army but in the militia. The inhabitants of the district round the
Bocche di Cattaro (the Bocchesi, as they are commonly called) refused
to obey this order, and when a military force was sent it failed to
overcome their resistance; and by an agreement made at Knezlac
in December 1869, Rodics, who had taken command, granted the
insurgents all they asked and a complete amnesty. After the con-
quest of Bosnia another attempt was made to enforce military
service; once more a rebellion broke out, and spread to the
contiguous districts of Herzegovina. This time, however, the govern-
ment, whose position in the Balkans had been much strengthened
by the occupation of the new provinces, did not fear to act with
decision. A considerable force was sent under General Baron Stephan
von Jovanovich (1828-1885); they were supported from sea by the
navy, and eventually the rebellion was crushed. An amnesty was
proclaimed, but the greater number of the insurgents sought refuge
in Montenegro rather than submit to military service.

The Italians of Trieste and Istria were the only people of the
empire who really desired separation from Austria; annexation
to Italy was the aim of the Italianissimi, as they were called.
The feeling was less strong in Tirol, where, except in the city of
Trent, they seem chiefly to have wished for separate local
institutions, so that they should no longer be governed from
Innsbruck. The Italian-speaking population on the coast of
Dalmatia only asked that the government should uphold them
against the pressure of the Slav races in the interior, and for this
reason were ready to support the German constitutionalists.

The party of centralization was then the Liberal German

party, supported by a few Italians and the Ruthenes, and as
years went by it was to become the National German party.
They hoped by a common parliament to create the Herman
feeling of a common Austrian nationality, by German Coattitu-
schools to spread the use of the German language.
Every grant of self-government to the territories
must diminish the influence of the Germans, and bring about a
restriction in the use of the German language; moreover, in
countries such as Bohemia, full self-government would almost
certainly mean that the Germans would become the subject race.
This was a result which they could not accept. It was intolerable
to them that just at the time when the national power of the
non-Austrian Germans was so greatly increased, and the Germans
were becoming the first race in Europe, they themselves should
resign the position as rulers which they had won during the last
three hundred years. They maintained, moreover, that the
ascendancy of the Germans was the only means of preserving the
unity of the monarchy; German was the only language in which
the different races could communicate with one another; it must
be the language of the army, the civil service and the parliament.
They laid much stress on the historic task of Austria in bringing
German culture to the half-civilized races of the east. They
demanded, therefore, that all higher schools and universities
should remain German, and that so far as possible the elementary
schools should be Germanized. They looked on the German
schoolmaster as the apostle of German culture, and they looked
forward to the time when the feeling of a common Austrian
nationality should obscure the national feeling of the Slavs, and
the Slavonic idioms should survive merely as the local dialects of
the peasantry, the territories 'becoming merely the provinces
of a united and centralized state. The total German population
was not quite a third of the whole. The maintenance of their
rule was, therefore, only possible by the exercise of great political
ability, the more so, since, as we have seen, they were not united
among themselves, the clergy and Feudal party being opposed
to the Liberals. Their watchword was the constitution of 1861,
which had been drawn up by their leaders; they demanded
that it should be restored, and with it parliamentary government.
They called themselves, therefore, the Constitutional party.
But the introduction of parliamentary government really added
greatly to the difficulty of the task before them. In the old days
German ascendancy had been secured by the common army, the
civil service and the court. As soon, however, as power was
transferred to a parliament, the Germans must inevitably be in
a minority, unless the method of election was deliberately
arranged so as to give them a majority. Parliamentary discus-
sion, moreover, was sure to bring out those racial differences
which it was desirable should be forgotten, and the elections
carried into every part of the empire a political agitation which
was very harmful when each party represented a different race.

The very first events showed one of those extraordinary
changes of policy so characteristic of modern Austrian history.
The decision of the government on the constitutional question
was really determined by immediate practical necessity. The
Hungarians required that the settlement should be ratified by a
parliament, therefore'a parliament must be procured which would
do this. It must be a parliament in which the Germans had a
majority, for the system of dualism was directly opposed to the
ambitions of the Slavs and the Federalists. Belcredi, who had
come into power in 1865 as a Federalist, and had suspended
the constitution of 1861 on the 2nd of January 1867, ordered
new elections for the diets, which were then to elect deputies to
an extraordinary Reichsrath which should consider the Ausgleich,
or compact with Hungary. The wording of the decree implied
that the February constitution did not exist as of law; the
Germans and Liberals, strenuously objecting to a "feudal-
federal " constitution which would give the Slavs a preponder-
ance in the empire, maintained that theFebruaryconsti-
tution was still in force, and that changes could only be
introduced bya regular Reichsrath summoned in accord-
ance wkh it, protested against the decree, and, in some cases,
threatened not to take part in the elections. As the Federalists

'

28

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

were all opposed to the Ausgleich, it was clear that a Reichsrath
chosen in these circumstances would refuse to ratify it, and this
was probably Belcredi's intention. As the existence of the empire
would thereby be endangered, Beust interfered; Belcredi was
dismissed, Beust himself became minister-president on the 7th
of February 1867, and a new edict was issued from Vienna
ordering the diets to elect a Reichsrath, according to the con-
stitution, which was now said to be completely valid. Of course,
however, those diets in which there was a Federalist majority,
viz. those of Bohemia, Moravia, Carinthia and Tirol, which were
already pledged to support the January policy of the government,
did not acquiesce in the February policy; and they, refused to
elect except on terms which the government could not accept.
The first three were immediately dissolved. In the elections
which followed in Bohemia the influence of the government was
sufficient to secure a German majority among the landed pro-
prietors; the Czechs, who were therefore in a minority, declared
the elections invalid, refused to take any part in electing deputies
for the Reichsrath, and seceded altogether from the diet. The
result was that Bohemia now sent a large German majority to
Vienna, and the few Czechs who were chosen refused to take their
seat in the parliament. Had the example of the Czechs been
followed by the other Slav races it would still have been difficult
to get together a Reichsrath to pass the Ausgleich.
compact It was, however, easier to deal with the Poles of Galicia,
with the for they had no historical rights to defend ; and by
Po/es- sending delegates to Vienna they would not sacrifice
any principle or prejudice any legal claim; they had only to
consider how they could make the best bargain. Their position
was a strong one; their votes were essential to the government,
and the government could be useful to them; it could give them
the complete control over the Ruthenes. A compact then was
easily arranged.

Beust promised them that there should be a special minister
for Galicia, a separate board for Galician education, that Polish
should be the language of instruction in all secondary schools,
that Polish instead of German should be the official language in
the law courts and public offices, Ruthenian being only used
in the elementary schools under strict limitations. On these
terms the Polish deputies, led by Ziemialkowski, agreed to go to
Vienna and vote for the Ausgleich.

When the Reichsrath met, the government had a large
majority ; and in the House, in which all the races except the
Czechs were represented, the Ausgleich was ratified
The con- almost unanimously. This having been done, it was
oti/t67. possible to proceed to special legislation for the
territories, which were henceforward officially known
as " the kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrath."
A series of fundamental laws were carried, which formally
established parliamentary government, with responsibility of
ministers, and complete control over the budget, and there were
included a number of clauses guaranteeing personal rights and
liberties in the way common to all modern constitutions. The
influence of the Poles was still sufficient to secure considerable
concessions to the wishes of the Federalists, since if they did not
get what they wished they would leave the House, and the
Slovenes, Dalmatians and Tirolese would certainly follow them.
Hence the German Liberals were prevented from introducing
direct elections to the Reichsrath, and the functions of the
Reichsrath were slightly less extensive than they had hitherto
been. Moreover, the Delegation was to be chosen not by the
House as a whole, but by the representatives of the separate
territories. This is one reason for the comparative weakness
of Austria as compared with Hungary, where the Delegation is
elected by each House as a whole; the Bohemian representatives,
e.g., meet and choose 10 delegates, the Galicians 7, those from
Trieste i ; the Delegation, is, therefore, not representative of the
majority of the chamber of deputies, but includes representa-
tives of all the groups which may be opposing the government
there, and they can carry on their opposition even in the Delega-
tion. So it came about in 1869, that on the first occasion when
there was a joint sitting of the Delegations to settle a point in the

budget, which Hungary had accepted and Austria rejected, the
Poles and Tirolese voted in favour of the Hungarian proposal.

As soon as these laws had been carried (December 1867),
Beust retired from the post of minister-president ; and in
accordance with constitutional practice a parliament- The
ary ministry was appointed entirely from the ranks Burger
of the Liberal majority; a ministry generally known Mini*-
as the " Burger Ministerium " in which Giskra and terium.
Herbst — the leaders of the German party in Moravia and
Bohemia — were the most important members. Austria now
began its new life as a modern constitutional state. From this
time the maintenance of the revised constitution of 1867 has
been the watchword of what is called the Constitutional party.
The first use which the new government made of their power
was to settle the finances, and in this their best work was done.
Among them were nearly all the representatives of trade and
industry, of commercial enterprise and financial speculation;
they were the men who hoped to make Austria a great industrial
state, and at this time they were much occupied with railway
enterprise. Convinced free-traders, they hoped by private
energy to build up the fortunes of the country, parliamentary
government — which meant for them the rule of the educated
and well-to-do middle class — being one of the means to this end.
They accepted the great burden of debt which the action of
Hungary imposed upon the country, and rejected the proposals
for repudiation, but notwithstanding the protest of foreign
bondholders they imposed a tax of 16 % on all interest on the
debt. They carried out an extension of the commercial treaty
with Great Britain by which a further advance was made in
the direction of free trade.

Of equal importance was their work in freeing Austria from
the control of the Church, which checked the intellectual life
of the people. The concordat of 1855 had given the The
Church complete freedom in the management of all Liberals
ecclesiastical affairs; there was full liberty of inter- and the
course with Rome, the state gave up all control over coacordat-
the appointment of the clergy, and in matters of church discipline
the civil courts had no voice — the clergy being absolutely subject
to the power of the bishops, who could impose temporal as well
as spiritual penalties. The state had even resigned to the Church
all authority over some departments of civil life, and restored
the authority of the canon law. This was the case as regards
marriage; all disputes were to be tried before ecclesiastical
courts, and the marriage registers were kept by the priests.
All the schools were under the control of the Church; the bishops
could forbid the use of books prejudicial to religion; in ele-
mentary schools all teachers were subject to the inspection of
the Church, and in higher schools only Roman Catholics could
be appointed. It had been agreed that the whole education
of the Roman Catholic youth, in all schools, private as well as
public, should be in accordance with the teaching of the Roman
Catholic Church. The authority of the Church extended even
to the universities. Some change in this system was essential;
the Liberal party demanded that the government should simply
state that the concordat had ceased to exist. To this, however,
the emperor would not assent, and there was a difficulty in over-
throwing an act which took the form of a treaty. The govern-
ment wished to come to some agreement by friendly discussion
with Rome, but Pius IX. was not willing to abate anything of
his full claims. The ministry, therefore, proceeded by internal
legislation, and in 1868 introduced three laws : (i) a marriage law
transferred the decisions on all questions of marriage from the
ecclesiastical to the civil courts, abolished the authority of the
canon law, and introduced civil marriage in those cases where
the clergy refused to perform the ceremony; (2) the control of
secular education was taken from the Church, and the manage-
ment of schools transferred to local authorities which were to
be created by the diets; (3) complete civil equality between
Catholics and non-Catholics was established. These laws were
carried through both Houses in May amid almost unparalleled
excitement, and at once received the imperial sanction, notwith-
standing the protest of all the bishops, led by Joseph Othmar

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

29

von Rauscher (1797-1875), cardinal archbishop of Vienna, who
had earned his red hat by the share he had taken in arranging the
concordat of 1855, and now attempted to use his great personal
influence with the emperor (his former pupil) to defeat the bill.

The ministry had the enthusiastic support of the German
population in the towns. They were also supported by the
teaching profession, which desired emancipation from ecclesi-
astical control, and hoped that German schools and German
railways were to complete the work which Joseph II. had begun.
But the hostility of the Church was dangerous. The pope, in an
allocution of 22nd June 1868, declared that these " damnable
and abominable laws " which were " contrary to the concordat,
to the laws of the Church and to the principles of Christianity,"
were "absolutely and for ever null and void." The natural
result was that when they were carried into effect the bishops
in many cases refused to obey. They claimed that the laws were
inconsistent with the concordat, that the concordat still was
in force, and that the laws were consequently invalid. The
argument was forcible, but the courts decided against them.
Rudigier, bishop of Linz, was summoned to a criminal court for
disturbing the public peace; he refused to appear, for by the
concordat bishops were not subject to temporal jurisdiction;
and when he was condemned to imprisonment the emperor at
once telegraphed his full pardon. In the rural districts the
clergy had much influence; they were supported by the peasants,
and the diets of Tirol and Vorarlberg, where there was a clerical
majority, refused to carry out the school law.

On the proclamation of papal infallibility in 1870, the government
took the opportunity of declaring that the concordat had lapsed,
on the ground that there was a fundamental change in the character
of the papacy. Nearly all the Austrian prelates had been opposed
to the new doctrine; many of them remained to the end of the
council and voted against it, and they only declared their submission
with great reluctance. The Old Catholic movement, however, never
made much progress in Austria. Laws regulating the position of
the Church were carried in 1874. (For the concordat see Laveleye,
La Prtisse et I'Autriche, Paris, 1870.)

During 1868 the constitution then was open to attack on two
sides, for the nationalist movement was gaining ground in
National- Bohemia and Galicia. In Galicia the extreme party,
ism la Oa- headed by Smolka, had always desired to imitate the
iida and Czechs and not attend at Vienna; they were outvoted,
but all parties agreed on a declaration in which the
final demands of the Poles were drawn up;1 they asked that
the powers of the Galician diet should be much increased, and
that the members from Galicia should cease to attend the
Reichsrath on the discussion of those matters with which the
Galician diet should be qualified to deal. If these demands
were not granted they would leave the Reichsrath. In Bohemia
the Czechs were very active; while the Poles were parading their
hostility to Russia in such a manner as to cause the emperor
to avoid visiting Galicia, some of the Czech leaders attended a
Slav demonstration at Moscow, and in 1868 they drew up and
presented to the diet at Prague a " declaration " which has since
been regarded as the official statement of their claims. They
asked for the full restoration of the Bohemian kingdom; they
contended that no foreign assembly was qualified to impose
taxes in Bohemia; that the diet was not qualified to elect
representatives to go to Vienna, and that a separate settlement
must be made with Bohemia similar to that with Hungary.
This declaration was signed by eighty-one members, including
many of the feudal nobles and bishops.2 The German majority
declared that they had forfeited their seats, and ordered new
elections. The agitation spread over the country, serious riots
took place, and with a view to keeping order the government
decreed exceptional laws. Similar events happened in Moravia,
and in Dalmatia the revolt broke out among the Bocchesi.

Before the combination of Clericals and Federalists the
ministry broke down; they were divided among themselves;
Counts Taaffe and Alfred Potocki, the minister of agriculture,
wished to conciliate the Slav races — a policy recommended

1 The documents are printed in Baron de Worms, op. cit.
1 It is printed in the Europdischer Geschichtskolentler (1868).

by Beust, probably with the sympathy of the emperor; the
others determined to cripple the opposition by taking away
the elections for the Reichsrath from the diets. Pffiia-
Taaffe and his friends resigned in January 1870, but mcotaiy
the majority did not long survive. In March, after breakdown
long delay, the new Galician demands were definitely °'
rejected; the whole of the Polish club, followed by the Tirolese
and Slovenes, left the House, which consequently consisted of
no members — the Germans and German representatives from
Bohemia and Moravia. It was clearly impossible to govern with
such a parliament. Not four years had gone by, and the new
constitution seemed to have failed like the old one. The only
thing to do was to attempt a reconciliation with the Slavs. The
ministry resigned, and Potocki and Taaffe formed a government
with this object. Potocki, now minister-president, then entered
on negotiations, hoping to persuade the Czechs to accept the
constitution. Rieger and Thun were summoned to Vienna;
he himself went to Prague, but after two days he had to give
up the attempt in despair. Feudals and Czechs all supported
the declaration of 1868, and would accept no compromise, and
he returned to Vienna after what was the greatest disappoint-
ment of his life. Government, however, had to be carried on;
the war between Germany and France broke out in July, and
Austria might be drawn into it; the emperor could not at such
a crisis alienate either the Germans or the Slavs. The Reichsrath
and all the diets were dissolved. This time in Bohemia the
Czechs, supported by the Feudals and the Clericals, gained a
large majority; they took their seats in the diet only to declare
that they did not regard it as the legal representative of the
Bohemian kingdom, but merely an informal assembly, and
refused to elect delegates for the Reichsrath. The Germans
in their turn now left the diet, and the Czechs voted an address
to the crown, drawn up by Count Thun, demanding the restora-
tion of the Bohemian kingdom. When the Reichsrath met
there were present only 130 out of 203 members, for the whole
Bohemian contingent was absent; the government then, under
a law of 1868, ordered that as the Bohemian diet had sent no
delegates, they were to be chosen directly from the people.
Twenty-four Constitutionalists and thirty Declarunten were
chosen; the latter, of course, did not go to Vienna, but the
additional twenty-four made a working majority by which the
government was carried on for the rest of the year.

But Potocki's influence was gone, and as soon as the European
crisis was over, in February 1871, the emperor appointed a
ministry chosen not from the Liberals but from the fj,e
Federalists and Clericals, led by Count Hohenwart ministry
and A. E. F. Schaffle, a professor at the university of otHoaea-
Vienna, chiefly known for his writings on political wart"
economy. They attempted to solve the problem by granting
to the Federalists all their demands. So long as parliament was
sitting they were kept in check; as soon as it had voted supplies
and the Delegations had separated, they ordered new elections
in all those diets where there was a Liberal majority. By the
help of the Clericals they won enough seats to put the Liberals
in a minority in the Reichsrath, and it would be possible to revise
the constitution if the Czechs consented to come. They would
only attend, however, on their own terms, which were a com-
plete recognition by the government of the claims made in the
Declaration. This was agreed to; and on the 1 2th of September
at the opening of the diet, the governor read a royal message
recognizing the separate existence of the Bohemian kingdom,
and promising that the emperor should be crowned as king at
Prague. It was received with delight throughout Bohemia,
and the Czechs drew a draft constitution of fundamental rights.
On this the Germans, now that they were in a minority, left the
diet, and began preparations for resistance. In Upper Austria,
Moravia and Carinthia, where they were outvoted by the
Clericals, they seceded, and the whole work of 1867 was on the
point of being overthrown. Were the movement not stopped
the constitution would be superseded, and the union with
Hungary endangered. Beust and Andrassy warned the emperor
of the danger, and the crown prince of Saxony was summoned

3°

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

by Beust to remonstrate with him. A great council was called
at Vienna (October 20), at which the emperor gave his decision
that the Bohemian demands could not be accepted. The Czechs
must come to Vienna, and consider a revision of the constitution
in a constitutional manner. Hohenwart resigned, but at the
same time Beust was dismissed, and a new cabinet was chosen
once more from among the German Liberals, under the leadership
of Prince Adolf Auersperg, whose brother Carlos had been one
of the chief members in the Burger Ministerium. For the second
time in four years the policy of the government had completely
changed within a few months. On i2th September the decree
had been published accepting the Bohemian claims; before the
end of the year copies of it were seized by the police, and men
were thrown into prison for circulating it.

Auersperg's ministry held office for eight years. They began
as had the Burger Ministerium, with a vigorous Liberal central-
Au re_ izing policy. In Bohemia they succeeded at first in
perg-s almost crushing the opposition. In 1872 the diet was
ministry, dissolved; and the whole influence of the government
i«79*° was usec^ to Procure a German majority. Koller, the

governor, acted with great vigour. Opposition news-
papers were suppressed; cases in which Czech journalists were
concerned were transferred to the German districts, so that they
were tried by a hostile German jury. Czech manifestoes were
confiscated, and meetings stopped at the slightest appearance
of disorder; and the riots were punished by quartering soldiers
upon the inhabitants. The decision between the two races
turned on the vote of the feudal proprietors, and in order to win
this a society was formed among the German capitalists of
Vienna (to which the name of Chabrus was popularly given)
to acquire by real or fictitious purchase portions of those estates
to which a vote was attached. These measures were successful ;
a large German majority was secured; Jews from Vienna sat
in the place of the Thuns and the Schwarzenbergs; and as for
many years the Czechs refused to sit in the diet, the government
could be carried on without difficulty. A still greater blow to
the Federalists was the passing of a new electoral law in 1873.
The measure transferred the right of electing members of the
Reichsrath from the diets to the direct vote of the people, the
result being to deprive the Federalists of their chief weapon;
it was no longer possible to take a formal vote of the legal repre-
sentatives in any territory refusing to appoint deputies, and
if a Czech or Slovene member did not take bis seat the only
result was that a single constituency was unrepresented, and
the opposition weakened. The measure was strongly opposed.
A petition with 250,000 names was presented from Bohemia;
and the Poles withdrew from the Reichsrath when the law was
introduced. But enough members remained to give the legal
quorum, and it was carried by 1 20 to 2 votes. At the same time
the number of members was increased to 353, but the proportion
of representatives from the different territories was maintained
and the system of election was not altered. The proportion of
members assigned to the towns was increased, the special
representatives of the chambers of commerce and of the landed
proprietors were retained, and the suffrage was not extended.
The artificial system which gave to the Germans a parliamentary
majority continued.

At this time the Czechs were much weakened by quarrels
among themselves. A new party had arisen, calling themselves

Radicals, but generally known as the Young Czechs,
sens/on/." They disliked the alliance with the aristocracy and the

clergy; they wished for universal suffrage, and recalled
the Hussite traditions. They desired to take their seats in the
diet, and to join with the Germans in political Deform. They
violently attacked Rieger, the leader of the Old Czechs, who
maintained the alliance with the Feudalists and the policy of
passive opposition. Twenty-seven members of the diet led by
Gregr and Stadkowsky, being outvoted in the Czech Club,
resigned their seats. They were completely defeated in the
elections which followed, but for the next four years the two
parties among the Czechs were as much occupied in opposing one
another as in opposing the Germans. These events might have

secured the predominance of the Liberals for many years. The
election after the reform bill gave them an increased majority
in the Reichsrath. Forty-two Czechs who had won seats did
not attend; forty- three Poles stood aloof from all party com-
bination, giving their votes on each occasion as the interest
of their country seemed to require; the real opposition was
limited to forty Clericals and representatives of the other
Slav races, who were collected on the Right under the leadership
of Hohenwart. Against them were 227 Constitutionalists, and
it seemed to matter little that they were divided into three
groups; there were 105 in the Liberal Club under the leadership
of Herbst, 57 Constitutionalists, elected by the landed proprietors,
and a third body of Radicals, some of whom were more
democratic than the old Constitutional party, while others laid
more stress on nationality. They used their majority to carry a
number of important laws regarding ecclesiastical affairs. Yet
within four years the government was obliged to turn for support
to the Federalists and Clericals, and the rule of the German
Liberals was overthrown. Their influence was in-
directly affected by the great commercial crisis of 1 8 73 . crisis of
For some years there had been active speculations on 1873.
the Stock Exchange; a great number of companies,
chiefly banks and building societies, had been founded on a very
insecure basis. The inevitable crisis began in 1872; it was
postponed for a short time, and there was some hope that the
Exhibition, fixed for 1873, would bring fresh prosperity; the
hope was not, however, fulfilled, and the final crash, which
occurred in May, brought with it the collapse of hundreds of
undertakings. The loss fell almost entirely on those who had
attempted to increase their wealth by speculative investment.
Sound industrial concerns were little touched by it, but specula-
tion had become so general that every class of society was affected,
and in the investigation which followed it became apparent that
some of the most distinguished members of the governing Liberal
party, including at least two members of the government, were
among those who had profited by the unsound finance. It
appeared also that many of the leading newspapers of Vienna,
by which the Liberal party was supported, had received money
from financiers. For the next two years political interest was
transferred from parliament to the law courts, in which financial
scandals were exposed, and the reputations of some of the leading
politicians were destroyed.1

This was to bring about a reaction against the economic
doctrines which had held the field for nearly twenty years; but
the full effect of the change was not seen for some
time. What ruined the government was the want of ^^erai
unity in the party, and their neglect to support a ministry.
ministry which had been taken from their own ranks.
In a country like Austria, in which a mistaken foreign policy or
a serious quarrel with Hungary might bring about the disruption
of the monarchy, parliamentary government was impossible
unless the party which the government helped in internal
matters were prepared to support it in foreign affairs and in the
commercial policy bound up with the settlement with Hungary.
This the constitutional parties did not do. During discussions
on the economic arrangement with Hungary in 1877 a large
number voted against the duties on coffee and petroleum, which
were an essential part of the agreement; they demanded,
moreover, that the treaty of Berlin should be laid before the
House, and 112 members, led by Herbst, gave a vote hostile to
some of its provisions, and in the Delegation refused the supplies
necessary for the occupation of Bosnia. They doubtless were
acting in accordance with their principles, but the situation was
such that it would have been impossible to carry out their wishes;
the only result was that the Austrian ministers and Andrissy
had to turn for help to the Poles, who began to acquire the
position of a government party, which they have kept since then.
At the beginning of 1879 Auersperg's resignation, which had long
been offered, was accepted. The constitutionalists remained

1 See Wirth, Geschichte der Handelskrisen (Frankfort, 1885); and
an interesting article by Schaffle in the Zeitschrift f. Staatswissen-
schaft (Stuttgart, 1874).

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

in power; but in the reconstructed cabinet, though Stremayr
was president, Count Taaffe, as minister of the interior, was the
most important member.

Parliament was dissolved in the summer, and Taaffe, by
private negotiations, first of all persuaded the Bohemian feudal
proprietors to give the Feudalists, who had long been excluded,
a certain number of seats; secondly, he succeeded where Potocki
had failed, and came to an agreement with the Czechs; they
had already, in 1878, taken their seats in the diet at Prague, and
now gave up the policy of " passive resistance," and consented
to take their seats also in the parliament at Vienna.

On entering the House they took the oath without reservation,
but in the speech from the throne the emperor himself stated

that they had entered without prejudice to their
Taaffe convictions, and on the first day of the session Rieger

read a formal reservation of right. The Liberals had
also lost many seats, so that the House now had a completely
different aspect; the constitutionalists were reduced to 91
Liberals and 54 Radicals; but the Right, under Hohenwart,
had increased to 57, and there were 57 Poles and 54 Czechs.
A combination of these three parties might govern against the
constitutionalists. Taaffe, who now became first minister, tried
first of all to govern by the help of the moderates of all parties,
and he included representatives of nearly every party in his
cabinet. But the Liberals again voted against the government
on an important military bill, an offence almost as unpardonable
in Austria as in Germany, and a great meeting of the party
decided that they would not support the government. Taaffe,
therefore, was obliged to turn for support to the Right. The
German members of the government resigned, their place was
taken by Clericals, Poles and Czechs, Smolka was elected
president of the Lower House of the Reichsrath, and the German
Liberals found themselves in a minority opposed by the " iron
ring " of these three parties, and helpless in the parliament of
their own creation. For fourteen years Taaffe succeeded in
maintaining the position he had thus secured. He was not
himself a party man; he had sat in a Liberal government; he
had never assented to the principles of the Federalists, nor was
he an adherent of the Clerical party. He continued to rule
according to the constitution; his watchword was " unpolitical
politics," and he brought in little contentious legislation. The
great source of his strength was that he stood between the Right
and a Liberal government. There was a large minority of
constitutionalists; they might easily become a majority, and
the Right were therefore obliged to support Taaffe in order to
avert this. They continued to support him, even if they did
not get from him all that they could have wished, and the
Czechs acquiesced in a foreign policy with which they had little
sympathy. Something, however, had to be done for them, and
from time to time concessions had to be made to the Clericals
and the Federalists.

The real desire of the Clericals was an alteration of the school
law, by which the control of the schools should be restored to

the Church and the period of compulsory education
Clericals, reduced. In this, however, the government did not

meet them, and in 1882 the Clericals, under Prince
Alfred v. Liechtenstein, separated from Hohenwart's party and
founded their own club, so that they could act more freely. Both
the new Clerical Club and the remainder of the Conservatives
were much affected by the reaction against the doctrines of
economic Liberalism. They began to adopt the principles of
Christian Socialism expounded by Rudolf Mayer and Baron von
Vogelfang, and the economic revolt against the influence of
capital was with them joined to a half-religious attack upon the
Jews. They represented that Austria was being governed by a
close ring of political financiers, many of whom were Jews or in
the pay of the Jews, who used the forms of the constitution,
under which there was no representation of the working classes,
to exploit the labour of the poor at the same time that they
ruined the people by alienating them from Christianity in " god-
less schools." It was during these years that the foundation for
the democratic clericalism of the future was laid. The chief

political leader in this new tendency was Prince Aloys v. Liechten-
stein, who complained of the political influence exercised by the
chambers of commerce, and demanded the organization of
working men in gilds. It was by their influence that a law was
introduced limiting the rate of interest, and they co-operated
with the government in legislation for improving the material
condition of the people, which had been neglected during the
period of Liberal government, and which was partly similar to
the laws introduced at the same time in Germany.

There seems no doubt that the condition of the workmen in the
factories of Moravia and the oil-mines of Galicia was peculiarly
unfortunate; the hours of work were very long, the
conditions were very injurious to health, and there
were no precautions against accidents. The report of tioa.
a parliamentary inquiry, called for by the Christian
Socialists, showed the necessity for interference. In 1883 a law
was carried, introducing factory inspection, extending to mines
and all industrial undertakings. The measure seems to have
been successful, and there is a general agreement that the
inspectors have done their work with skill and courage. In
1884 and 1885 important laws were passed regulating the work
in mines and factories, and introducing a maximum working day
of eleven hours in factories, and ten hours in mines. Sunday
labour was forbidden, and the hours during which women and
children could be employed were limited. Great power was
given to the administrative authorities to relax the application
of these laws in special cases and special trades. This power
was at first freely used, but it was closely restricted by a further
law of 1893. In 1887-1888 laws, modelled on the new German
laws, introduced compulsory insurance against accidents and
sickness. These measures,*! though severely criticized by the
Opposition, were introduced to remedy obvious, and in some
cases terrible social evils. Other laws to restore gilds among
working men had a more direct political object. Another form
of state socialism was the acquisition of railways by the state.
Originally railways had been built by private enterprise, sup-
ported in some cases by a state guarantee; a law of 1877 per-
mitted the acquisition of private lines; when Taaffe retired the
state possessed nearly 5000 m. of railway, not including those
which belonged to Austria and Hungary conjointly. In 1899
a minister of railways was appointed. In this policy military
considerations as well as economic were of influence. In every
department we find the same reaction against the doctrines of
laissez-faire. In 1889 for the first time the Austrian budget
showed a surplus, partly the result of the new import duties,
partly due to a reform of taxation.

For a fuller description of these social reforms, see the Jahrbuch
fur Gesetzgebung (Leipzig, 1886, 1888 and 1894); also the annual
summary of new laws in the Zeitschrift fur Staatswissenschaft (Stutt-
gart). For the Christian Socialists, see Nitti, Catholic Socialism
(London, 1895).

Meanwhile it was necessary for the government to do some-
thing for the Czechs and the other Slavs, on whose support
they depended for their majority. The influence of
the government became more favourable to them in JJnroare
the matter of language, and this caused the struggle question.
of nationalities to assume the first place in Austrian .
public life — a place which it has ever since maintained. The
question of language becomes a political one, so far as it concerns
the use of different languages in the public offices and law courts,
and in the schools. There never was any general law laying
down clear and universal rules, but since the time of Joseph II.
German had been the ordinary language of the government.
All laws were published in German; German was the sole
language used in the central public offices in Vienna, and the
language of the court and of the army; moreover, in almost
every part of the monarchy it had become the language of what
is called the internal service in the public offices and law courts;
all books and correspondence were kept in German, not only in
the German districts, but also in countries such as Bohemia and
Galicia. The bureaucracy and the law courts had therefore be-
come a network of German-speaking officialism extending over
the whole country; no one had any share in the government

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

unless he could speak and write German. The only excep-
tion was in the Italian districts; not only in Italy itself (in
Lombardy, and afterwards in Venetia), but in South Tirol,
Trieste, Istria and Dalmatia, Italian has always been used,
even for the internal service of the government offices, and
though the actual words of command are now given in German
and the officers are obliged to know Serbo-Croatian it remains to
this day the language of the Austrian navy. Any interference
with the use of German would be a serious blow to the cause of
those who hoped to Germanize the whole empire. Since 1867 the
old rules have been maintained absolutely as regards the army,
and German has also, as required by the military authorities,
become the language of the railway administration. It remains
the language of the central offices in Vienna, and is the usual,
though not the only, language used in the Reichsrath. In
1869 a great innovation was made, when Polish was introduced
throughout the whole of Galicia as the normal language of
government; and since that time the use of German has almost
entirely disappeared in that territory. Similar innovations have
also begun, as we shall see, in other parts.

Different from this is what is called the external service. Even
in the old days it was customary to use the language of the
district in communication between the government offices and
private individuals, and evidence could be given in the law
courts in the language generally spoken. This was not the result
of any law, but depended on administrative regulations of the
government service; it was practically necessary in remote
districts, such as Galicia and Bukovina, where few of the popu-
lation understood German. In some places a Slav-speaking
individual would himself have to provide the interpreter, and
approach the government in German. Local authorities, e.g.
town councils and the diets, were free to use what language
they wished, and in this matter the Austrian government has
shown great liberality. The constitution of 1867 kid down a
principle of much importance, by which previous custom became
established as a right. Article 19 runs: "All races of the
empire have equal rights, and every race has an inviolable right
to the preservation and use of its own nationality and language.
The equality of all customary (landesilblich) languages in school,
office and public life, is recognized by the state. In those
territories in which several races dwell, the public and educational
institutions are to be so arranged that, without applying com-
pulsion to learn a second Landessprache, each of the races re-
ceives the necessary means of education in its own language."
The application of this law gives great power to the government,
for everything depends on what is meant by landesublich, and
it rests with them to determine when a language is customary.
The Germans demand the recognition of German as a customary
language in every part of the empire, so that a German may
claim to have his business attended to in his own language, even
in Dalmatia and Galicia. In Bohemia the Czechs claim that their
language shall be recognized as customary, even in those districts
such as Reichenberg, which are almost completely German;
the Germans, on the other hand, claim that the Czech language
shall only be recognized in those towns and districts where
there is a considerable Czech population. What Taaffe's
Administration did was to interpret this law in a sense more
favourable to the Slavs than had hitherto been the case.

Peculiar importance is attached to the question of education.
The law of 1867 required that the education in the elementary
schools in the Slav districts should be given in Czech or Slovenian,
as the case might be. The Slavs, however, required that, even
when a small minority of Slav race settled in any town, they
should not be compelled to go to the German schools, but
should have their own school provided for them; and this
demand was granted by Prazak, minister of education under
Count Taaffe. The Germans had always hoped that the people
as they became educated would cease to use their own particular
language. Owing to economic causes the Slavs, who increase
more rapidly than the Germans, tend to move westwards, and
large numbers settle in the towns and manufacturing districts.
It might have been expected that they would then cease to use

their own language and become Germanized; but, on the con-
trary, the movement of population is spreading their language
and they claim that special schools should be provided for them,
and that men of their own nationality should be appointed to
government offices to deal with their business. This has hap-
pened not only in many places in Bohemia, but in Styria, and
even in Vienna, where there has been a great increase in the
Czech population and a Czech school has been founded. The
introduction of Slavonic into the middle and higher schools has
affected the Germans in their most sensitive point. They have
always insisted that German is the Kultur-sprache. On one
occasion Count A. Auersperg (Anastasius Griin) entered the
diet of Carniola carrying the whole of the Slovenian literature
under his arm, as evidence that the Slovenian language could not
well be substituted for German as a medium of higher education.

The first important regulations which were issued under the
law of 1867 applied to Dalmatia, and for that country between
1872 and 1876 a series of laws and edicts were issued determining
to what extent the Slavonic idioms were to be recognized.
Hitherto all business had been done in Italian, the language of
a small minority living in the seaport towns. The effect of these
laws has been to raise Croatian to equality with Italian. It
has been introduced in all schools, so that nearly all educa-
tion is given in Croatian, even though a knowledge of Italian
is quite essential for the maritime population; and it is only
in one or two towns, such as Zara, the ancient capital of the
country, that Italian is able to maintain itself. Since 1882
there has been a Slav majority in the diet, and Italian has been
disused in the proceedings of that body. In this case the con-
cessions to the Servo-Croatians had been made by the Liberal
ministry; they required the parliamentary support of the
Dalmatian representatives, who were more numerous than the
Italian, and it was also necessary to cultivate the loyalty of the
Slav races in this part so as to gain a support for Austria against
the Russian party, which was very active in the Balkan Peninsula.
It was better to sacrifice the Italians of Dalmatia than the
Germans of Carinthia.1

It was not till 1879 that the Slovenes received the support
of the government. In Carniola they succeeded, in 1882, in
winning a majority in the diet, and from this time, while the diet
of Styria is the centre of the German, that of Carniola is the
chief support of the Slovene agitation. In the same year they
won the majority in the town council of Laibach, which had
hitherto been German. They were able, therefore, to introduce
Illyrian as the official language, and cause the names of the streets
to be written up in Illyrian. This question of street names is,
as it were, a sign of victory. Serious riots broke out in some
of the towns of Istria when, for the first time, Illyrian was used
for this purpose as well as Italian. In Prague the victory of the
Czechs has been marked by the removal of all German street
names, and the Czech town council even passed a by-law
forbidding private individuals to have tablets put up with the
name of the street in German. In consequence of a motion by
the Slovene members of the Reichsrath and a resolution of the
diet of Carniola, the government also declared Slovenian to be a
recognized language for the whole of Carniola, for the district
of Cilli in Styria, and for the Slovene and mixed districts in the
south of Carinthia, and determined that in Laibach a Slovene
gymnasium should be maintained as well as the German one.

The Germans complain that in many cases the government acted
very unfairly to them. They constantly refer to the case of Klagen-
furt. _ This town in Carinthia had a population of 16,491 German-
speaking Austrians; the Slovenian-speaking population numbered
568, of whom 1 80 were inhabitants of the gaol or the hospital. The
government, however, in 1880 declared Slovenian a customary
language, so that provision had to be made in public offices and law
courts for dealing with business in Slovenian. It must be remem-
bered, however, that even though the town was German, the rural
population of the surrounding villages was chiefly Slovene.

It was in Bohemia and Moravia that the contest was fought
out with the greatest vehemence. The two races were nearly
equal, and the victory of Czech would mean that nearly two

1 For Dalmatia, see T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, &c. (Oxford, 18891.

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

33

million Germans would be placed in a position of subordination;
but for the last twenty years there had been a constant encroach-
ment by Czech on German. This was partly due to the direct
action of the government. An ordinance of 1880 determined
that henceforward all business which had been brought before
any government office or law court should be dealt with, within
the office, in the language in which it was introduced; this
applied to the whole of Bohemia and Moravia, and meant that
Czech would henceforward have a position within the government
service. It was another step in the same direction when, in
1886, it was ordered that " to avoid frequent translations "
business introduced in Czech should be dealt with in the same
language in the high courts of Prague and Briinn. Then not
only were a large number of Czech elementary schools founded,
but also many middle schools were given to the Czechs, and
Czech classes introduced in German schools ; and, what affected
the Germans most, in 1882 classes in Czech were started in the
university of Prague — a desecration, as it seemed, of the oldest
German university.

The growth of the Slav races was, however, not merely the
result of government assistance ; it had begun long before Taaffe
assumed office ; it was to be seen in the census returns and in the
results of elections. Prague was no longer the German city it
had been fifty years before ; the census of 1880 showed 36,000
Germans to 120,000 Czechs. It was the same in Pilsen. In
1861 the Germans had a majority in this town; in 1880 they were
not a quarter of the population. This same phenomenon, which
occurs elsewhere, cannot be attributed to any laxity of the
Germans. The generation which was so vigorously demanding
national rights had themselves all been brought up under the
old system in German schools, but this had not implanted in
them a desire to become German. It was partly due to economic
causes — the greater increase among the Czechs, and the greater
migration from the country to the towns ; partly the result
of the romantic and nationalist movement which had arisen
about 1830, and partly the result of establishing popular educa-
tion and parliamentary government at the same time. As soon
as these races which had so long been ruled by the Germans
received political liberty and the means of education, they
naturally used both to reassert their national individuality.

It may be suggested that the resistance to the German language
is to some extent a result of the increased national feeling among
the Germans themselves. They have made it a matter of principle.
In the old days it was common for the children of German parents
in Bohemia to learn Czech; since 1867 this has ceased to be the
case. It may almost be said that they make it a point of honour
not to do so. A result of this is that, as educated Czechs are gener-
ally bilingual, it is easier for them to obtain appointments in districts
where a knowledge of Czech is required, and the Germans, therefore,
regard every order requiring the use of Czech as an order which
excludes Germans from a certain number of posts. This attitude of
hostility and contempt is strongest among the educated middle
class; it is not shown to the same extent by the clergy and the
nobles.

The influence of the Church is also favourable to the Slav races,
not so much from principle as owing to the fact that they supply
more candidates for ordination than the Germans. There is no
doubt, however, that the tendency among Germans has been to
exalt the principle of nationality above religion, and to give it an
absolute authority in which the Roman Catholic Church cannot
acquiesce. In this, as in other ways, the Germans in Austria have
been much influenced by the course of events in the German empire.
This hostility of the Church to the German nationalist movement
led in 1898 to an agitation against the Roman Catholic Church, and
among the Germans of Styria and other territories large numbers left
the Church, going over either to Protestantism or to Old Catholicism.
This " Los von Rom " movement, which was caused by the con-
tinued alliance of the Clerical party with the Slav parties, is more
of the nature of a political demonstration than of a religious move-
ment.

The Germans, so long accustomed to rule, now saw their old
ascendancy threatened, and they defended it with an energy
German that increased with each defeat. In 1880 they founded a
hostility, great society, the Deutscher Schulverein, to establish and
assist German schools. It spread over the whole of the
empire; in a few years it numbered 100,000 members, and had an
income of nearly 300,000 gulden ; no private society in Austria

III. 2

had ever attained so great a success. In the Reichsrath a motion
was introduced, supported by all the German Liberal parties,
demanding that German should be declared the language of state
and regulating the conditions under which the other idioms
could be recognized ; it was referred to a committee from which
it never emerged, and a bill to the same effect, introduced in
1886, met a similar fate. In Bohemia they demanded, as a means
of protecting themselves against the effect of the language
ordinances, that the country should be divided into two parts;
in one German was to be the sole language, in the other Czech
was to be recognized. A proposal to this effect was introduced
by them in the diet at the end of 1886, but since 1882 the Germans
had been in a minority. The Czechs, of course, refused even to
consider it; it would have cut away the ground on which their
whole policy was built up, namely, the indissoluble unity of the
Bohemian kingdom, in which German and Czech should through-
out be recognized as equal and parallel languages. It was
rejected on a motion of Prince Karl Schwarzenberg without
discussion, and on this all the Germans rose and left the diet,
thereby imitating the action of the Czechs in old days when they
had the majority.

These events produced a great change on the character of the
German opposition. It became more and more avowedly
racial; the defence of German nationality was put
in the iron t of their programme. The growing national
animosity added bitterness to political life, and de-
stroyed the possibility of a strong homogeneous party
on which a government might depend. The beginning of this
movement can be traced back to the year 1870. About that time
a party of young Germans had arisen who professed to care little
for constitutionalism and other " legal mummies," but made
the preservation and extension of their own nationality their
sole object. As is so often the case in Austria, the movement
began in the university of Vienna, where a Leseverein (reading
club) of German students was formed as a point of cohesion for
Germans, which had eventually to be suppressed. The first
representative of the movement in parliament was Herr von
Schonerer, who did not scruple to declare that the Germans
looked forward to union with the German empire. They were
strongly influenced by men outside Austria. Bismarck was their
national hero, the anniversary of Sedan their political festival,
and approximation to Germany was dearer to them than the
maintenance of Austria. After 1878 a heightening of racial
feeling began among the Radicals, and in 1881 all the German
parties in opposition joined together in a club called the United
Left, and in their programme put in a prominent place the defence
of the position of the Germans as the condition for the existence
of the state, and demanded that German should be expressly
recognized as the official language. The younger and more
ardent spirits, however, found it difficult to work in harmony
with the older constitutional leaders. They complained that
the party leaders were not sufficiently decisive in the measures
for self-defence. In 1885 great festivities in honour of Bismarck's
eightieth birthday, which had been arranged in Graz, were
forbidden by the government, and the Germans of Styria were
very indignant that the party did not take up the matter with
sufficient energy. After the elections of 1885 the Left, therefore,
broke up again into two clubs, the " German Austrian," which
included the more moderate, and the " German," which wished
to use sharper language. The German Club, e.g., congratulated
Bismarck on his measures against the Poles; the German
Austrians refused to take cognizance of events outside Austria
with which they had nothing to do. Even the German Club was
not sufficiently decided for Herr von Schonerer and his friends,
who broke off from it and founded a " National German Union."
They spoke much of Germanentum and Unverfiilschtes Deutsch-
tum, and they advocated a political union with the German
empire, and were strongly anti-Hungarian and wished to resign
all control over Galicia, if by a closer union with Germany
they could secure German supremacy in Bohemia and the
south Slav countries. They play the same part in Austria as does
the " pan-Germanic Union " in Germany. When in 1888 the

34

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

Bohem a.

two clubs, the German Austrians and the Germans, joined once
more under the name of the " United German Left " into a
new club' with eighty-seven members, so as the better to guard
against the common danger and to defeat the educational
demands of the Clericals, the National Germans remained apart
with seventeen members. They were also infected by the growing
spirit of anti-Semitism. The German parties had originally
been the party of the capitalists, and comprised a large number
of Jews; this new German party committed itself to violent
attacks upon the Jews, and for this reason alone any real
harmony between the different branches would have been
impossible.

Notwithstanding the concessions about language the Czechs
had, however, made no advance towards their real object — the
recognition of the Bohemian kingdom. Perhaps the leaders of
the party, who were now growing old, would have been content
with the influence they had already attained, but they were
hard pressed at home by the Young Czechs, who were more
impatient. When Count Thun was appointed governor of
Bohemia their hopes ran high, for he was supposed to favour
the coronation of the emperor at Prague. In 1890, however,
instead of proceeding to the coronation as was expected, Taaffe
n» agree- attempted to bring about a reconciliation between
meat the opposing parties. The influence by which his

policy was directed is not quite clear, but the Czechs
j^j J)een Q£ recent years less easy (-o <jeal wit]1) an(J

Taaffe had never really shown any wish to alter the constitution;
his policy always was to destroy the influence of parliament
by playing off one party against the other, and so to win a clear
field for the government. During the month of January con-
ferences were held at Vienna, with Taaffe in the chair, to which
were invited representatives of the three groups into which
the Bohemian representatives were divided, the German party,
the Czechs, and the Feudal party. After a fortnight's discussion
an agreement was made on the basis of a separation between the
German and the Czech districts, and a revision of the electoral
law. A protocol enumerating the points agreed on was signed
by all who had taken part in the conference, and in May bills
were laid before the diet incorporating the chief points in the
agreement. But they were not carried; the chief reason being
that the Young Czechs had not been asked to take part in the con-
ference, and did not consider themselves bound by its decisions;
they opposed the measures and had recourse to obstruction, and
a certain number of the Old Czechs gradually came over to them.
Their chief ground of criticizing the proposed measures was that
they would threaten the unity of the Bohemian country.1 At
the elections in 1891 a great struggle took place between the Old
and the Young Czechs. The latter were completely victorious ;
Rieger, who had led the party for thirty years, disappeared
from the Reichsrath. The first result was that the proposed
agreement with Bohemia came to an end. But the disappearance
of the Old Czechs made the parliamentary situation very insecure.
The Young Czechs could not take their place; their Radical
and anti-clerical tendencies alarmed the Feudalistsand Clericalists
who formed so large a part of the Right; they attacked the
alliance with Germany; they made public demonstration of
their French sympathies; they entered into communication
with other Slav races, especially the Serbs of Hungary and
Bosnia; they demanded universal suffrage, and occasionally
supported the German Radicals in their opposition to the Clerical
parties, especially in educational matters; under their influence
disorder increased in Bohemia, a secret society called the
Umlodina (an imitation of the Servian society of that name) was
discovered, and stringent measures had to be taken to preserve
order. The government therefore veered round towards the
German Liberals; some of the ministers most obnoxious to the
Germans resigned, and their places were taken by Germans.
For two years the government seemed to waver, looking now to
the Left, now to Hohenwart and his friends; for a time Taaffe
really had the support of all parties except the Young Czechs.

1 On this see Menger, Der Ausgleich mil Bohmen (Vienna, 1891),
where the documents are printed.

After two years he gave up his cautious policy and took a
bold move. In October 1893 he introduced a reform bill. Univer-
sal suffrage had long been demanded by the working
men and the Socialists; the Young Czechs also had
put it on their programme, and many of the Christian
Socialists and anti-Semites desired an alteration of the franchise.
Taaffe's bill, while keeping the curiae of the feudal proprietors
and the chambers of commerce as they were, and making no
change in the number of members, proposed to give the franchise
in both towns and rural districts to every one who could read and
write, and had resided six months in one place. This was
opposed by the Liberals, for with the growth of socialism and
anti-Semitism, they knew that the extension of the franchise
would destroy their influence. On this Taaffe had probably
calculated, but he had omitted to inquire what the other parties
would do. He had not even consulted Hohenwart, to whose
assistance he owed his long tenure of power. Not even the
pleasure of ruining the Liberals was sufficient to persuade the
Conservatives to vote for a measure which would transfer the
power from the well-to-do to the indigent, and Hohenwart
justly complained that they ought to have been secure against
surprises of this kind. The Poles also were against a measure
which would give more influence to the Ruthenes. The position
of the government was hopeless, and without waiting for a division
Taaffe resigned.

The event to which for fourteen years the Left had looked
forward had now happened. Once more they could have a
share in the government, which they always believed Tne
belonged to them by nature. Taught by experience coalition
and adversity, they did not scruple to enter into an ministry,
alliance with their old enemies, and a coalition ministry l893'
was formed from the Left, the Clericals and the Poles. The
president was Prince Alfred Windisch-Gratz, grandson of the
celebrated general, one of Hohenwart's ablest lieutenants;
Hohenwart himself did not take office. Of course an administra-
tion of this kind could not take a definite line on any controversial
question, but during 1894 they carried through the commercial
treaty with Russia and the laws for the continuance of the
currency reform. The differences of the clubs appeared, how-
ever, in the discussions on franchise reform; the government,
not strong enough to have a policy of its own, had referred the
matter to a committee; for the question having once been
raised, it was impossible not to go on with it. This would
probably have been fatal to the coalition, but the final blow
was given by a matter of very small importance arising from the
disputes on nationality. The Slovenes had asked that in the
gymnasium at Cilli classes in which instruction was given in
Slovenian should be formed parallel to the German classes.
This request caused great excitement in Styria and the neigh-
bouring districts; the Styrian diet (from which the Slovene
minority had seceded) protested. The Slovenes were, however,
members of the Hohenwart Club, so Hohenwart and his followers
supported the request, which was adopted by the ministry. The
German Left opposed it; they were compelled to do so by the
popular indignation in the German districts; and when the
vote was carried against them (i2th June 1895) they made it a
question of confidence, and formally withdrew their support
from the government, which therefore at once resigned.

After a short interval the emperor appointed as minister-
president Count Badeni, who had earned a great reputation
as governer of Galicia. He formed an administration
the merit of which, as of so many others, was that it was
to belong to no party and to have no programme. He
hoped to be able to work in harmony with the moderate elements
of the Left; his mission was to carry through the composition
(Ausgleich) with Hungary; to this everything else must be sub-
ordinated. During 1896 he succeeded in carrying a franchise
reform bill, which satisfied nearly all parties. AH the old categories
of members were maintained, but a fifth curia was added, in which
almost any one might vote who had resided six months in one place
and was not in domestic service; in this way seventy-two would
be added to the existing members. This matter having been

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

35

settled, parliament was dissolved. The result of the elections of
1897 was the return of a House so constituted as to make any
strong government impossible. On both sides the anti-Semitic
parties representing the extreme demagogic elements were present
in considerable numbers. The United German Left had almost
disappeared; it was represented only by a few members chosen
by the great proprietors; in its place there were the three parties
— the German Popular party, the German Nationalists, and the
German Radicals — who all put questions of nationality first and
had deserted the old standpoint of the constitution. Then there
were the fourteen Social Democrats who had won their seats under
the new franchise. The old party of the Right was, however,
also broken up; side by side with forty -one Clericals there were
twenty-eight Christian Socialists led by Dr Lueger, a man of
great oratorical power, who had won a predominant influence in
Vienna, so long the centre of Liberalism, and had quite eclipsed
the more modest efforts of Prince Liechtenstein. As among
the German National party, there were strong nationalist ele-
ments in his programme, but they were chiefly directed against
Jews and Hungarians; Lueger had already distinguished
himself by his violent attacks on Hungary, which had caused
some embarrassment to the government at a time when the
negotiations for the Ausgleich were in progress. Like anti-Semites
elsewhere, the Christian Socialists were reckless and irresponsible,
appealing directly to the passions and prejudices of the most
ignorant. There were altogether 200 German members of the
Reichsrath, but they were divided into eight parties, and nowhere
did there seem to be the elements on which a government could
be built up.

The parliamentary situation is best explained by the following
table showing the parties : —

German Liberals — 1897. 1901.

Constitutional Landed Proprietors . 28 28

German Radicals .... 49 41

German Popular Party ... 42 51

Schoenerer Group .... 5 21

Kronawetter I

Democrat^ I

Social Democrats

German Conservatives —
German Clericals
Catholic Popular Party
Christian Socialists

Federalist Great Proprietors
Czechs—

Young Czechs

Radical Young Czechs

Clerical Czechs .

Agrarian Czechs .

Poles-
Polish Club . . ' .
Stoyalovski Group
Popular Polish Party .

Slovenes —

Clerical Slovenes .
Radical

Italians —

Liberal Italians .
Clerical

126
H

3°

28

16

60
i
I
I

— 141

10

37

23

— 60
16

53
4

2

6

- 63 - 65

59
6

3

60
ii

— 68 — 71

Croatian! .
Serbs
Ruthenes —

Ruthenes

Young Ruthenes .

Rumanians —
Rumanians .
Young Rumanians

Total

II

— 16

— 19
ii

2

6

5

— n

5
i

425

— 16

— 19
9

2

— II

— 5

425

The most remarkable result of the elections was the disappear-
ance of the Liberals in Vienna. In 1879, out of 37 members
returned in Lower Austria, 33 were Liberals, but now they were

Socialism.

replaced to a large extent by the Socialists. It was impossible
to maintain a strong party of moderate constitutionalists, on
whom the government could depend, unless there was a large
nucleus from Lower Austria. The influence of Lueger was very
embarrassing; he had now a majority of two-thirds in the town
council, and had been elected burgomaster. The emperor had
refused to confirm the election; he had been re-elected, and
then the emperor, in a personal interview, appealed to him to
withdraw. He consented to do so; but, after the election of
1897 had given him so many followers in the Reichsrath, Badeni
advised that his election as burgomaster should be confirmed.
There was violent antipathy between the Christian Socialists
and the German Nationalists, and the transference of their
quarrels from the Viennese Council Chamber to the Reichsrath
was very detrimental to the orderly conduct of debate.

The limited suffrage had hitherto prevented socialism from
becoming a political force in Austria as it had in Germany, and
the national divisions have always impeded the
creation of a centralized socialist party. The first
object of the working classes necessarily was the attainment
of political power; in 1867 there had been mass demonstrations
and petitions to the government for universal suffrage. During
the next years there was the beginning of a real socialist move-
ment in Vienna and in Styria, where there is a considerable
industrial population; after 1879, however, the growth of the
party was interrupted by the introduction of anarchical doctrines.
Most's paper, the Freiheit, was introduced through Switzerland,
and had a large circulation. The anarchists, under the leadership
of Peukert, seem to have attained considerable numbers. In
1883-1884 there were a number of serious strikes, collisions
between the police and the workmen, followed by assassinations;
it was a peculiarity of Austrian anarchists that in some cases
they united robbery to murder. The government, which was
seriously alarmed, introduced severe repressive measures; the
leading anarchists were expelled or fled the country. In 1887,
under the leadership of Dr Adler, the socialist party began to
revive (the party of violence having died away), and since then
it has steadily gained in numbers; in the forefront of the political
programme is put the demand for universal suffrage. In no
country is the ist of May, as the festival of Labour, celebrated
so generally.

Badeni after the election sent in his resignation, but the
emperor refused to accept it, and he had, therefore, to do the best
he could and turn for support to the other nationalities. The
strongest of them were the fifty-nine Poles and sixty Young
Czechs; he therefore attempted, as Taaffe had done, to come
to some agreement with them. The Poles were always ready
to support the government ; among the Young Czechs the more
moderate had already attempted to restrain the wilder spirits
of the party, and they were quite prepared to enter into negotia-
tions. They did not wish to lose the opportunity which now
was open to them of winning influence over the administration.
What they required was further concession as to the language
in Bohemia. In May 1897 Badeni, therefore, published his
celebrated ordinances. They determined (i) that all corre-
spondence and documents regarding every matter ne
brought before the government officials should be language
conducted in the language in which it was first intro- °"H"ance*
duced. This applied to the whole of Bohemia, and °
meant the introduction of Czech into the government offices
throughout the whole of the kingdom; (2) after 1903 no
one was to be appointed to a post under the government in
Bohemia until he had passed an examination in Czech. These
ordinances fulfilled the worst fears of the Germans. The German
Nationalists and Radicals declared that no business should be
done till they were repealed and Badeni dismissed. They
resorted to obstruction. They brought in repeated motions to
impeach the ministers, and parliament had to be prorogued in
June, although no business of any kind had been transacted.
Badeni had not anticipated the effect his ordinances would have;
as a Pole he had little experience in the western part of the
empire. During the recess he tried to open negotiations, but

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

the Germans refused even to enter into a discussion until the
ordinances had been withdrawn. The agitation spread through-
out the country; great meetings were held at Eger and Aussig,
which were attended by Germans from across the frontier, and
led to serious disturbances; the cornflower, which had become
the symbol of German nationality and union with Germany, was
freely worn, and the language used was in many cases treasonable.
The emperor insisted that the Reichsrath should again be
summoned to pass the necessary measures for the agreement
with Hungary; scenes then took place which have no parallel
in parliamentary history. To meet the obstruction it was
determined to sit at night, but this was unsuccessful. On one
occasion Dr Lecher, one of the representatives of Moravia, spoke
for twelve hours, from 9 P.M. till 9 A.M., against the Ausgleich.
The opposition was not always limited to feats of endurance of
this kind. On the 3rd of November there was a free fight in the
House; it arose from a quarrel between Dr Lueger and the
Christian Socialists on the one side (for the Christian Socialists
had supported the government since the confirmation of Lueger
as burgomaster) and the German Nationalists under Herr Wolf,
a German from Bohemia, the violence of whose language had
already caused Badeni to challenge him to a duel. The Nation-
alists refused to allow Lueger to speak, clapping their desks,
hissing and making other noises, tiU at last the Young Czechs
attempted to prevent the disorder by violence. On the 24th of
November the scenes of disturbance were renewed. The pre-
sident, Herr v. Abrahamovitch, an Armenian from Galicia,
refused to call on Schonerer to speak. The Nationalists therefore
stormed the platform, and the president and ministers had to
fly into their private rooms to escape personal violence, until
the Czechs came to their rescue, and by superiority in numbers
and physical strength severely punished Herr Wolf and his
friends. The rules of the House giving the president no authority
for maintaining order, he determined, with the assent of the
ministers, to propose alterations in procedure. The next day,
when the sitting began, one of the ministers, Count Falkenhayn,
a Clerical who was very unpopular, moved " That any member
who continued to disturb a sitting after being twice called to
order could be suspended — for three days by the president, and
for thirty days by the House." The din and uproar was such
that not a word could be heard, but at a pre-arranged signal
from the president all the Right rose, and he then declared that
the new order had been carried, although the procedure of the
House required that it should be submitted to a committee.
The next day, at the -beginning of the sitting, the Socialists
rushed on the platform, tore up and destroyed all the papers
lying there, seized the president, and held him against the wall.
After he had escaped, eighty police were introduced into the
House and carried out the fourteen Socialists. The next day
Hen Wolf was treated in the same manner. The excitement
spread to the street. Serious disorders took place in Vienna and
in Graz; the German opposition had the support of the people,
and Lueger warned the ministers that as burgomaster he would
be unable to maintain order in Vienna; even the Clerical
Germans showed signs of deserting the government. The
Badeni emPeror. hastily summoned to Vienna, accepted
nilgai. Badeni's resignation, the Germans having thus by
obstruction attained part of their wishes. The new
minister, Gautsch, a man popular with all parties, held office for
three months; he proclaimed the budget and the Ausgleich,
and in February replaced the language ordinances by others,
under which Bohemia was to be divided into three districts —
one Czech, one German and one mixed. The Germans, however,
were not satisfied with this; they demanded absolute repeal.
The Czechs also were offended; they arranged riots at Prague;
the professors in the university refused to lecture unless the
German students were defended from violence; Gautsch
resigned, and Thun, who had been governor of Bohemia, was
appointed minister. Martial law was proclaimed in Bohemia,
and strictly enforced. Thun then arranged with the Hungarian
ministers a compromise about the Ausgleich.
The Reichsrath was again summoned, and the meetings were

sad
Czechs.

less disturbed than in the former year, but the Germans still
prevented any business from being done. The Germans now had
a new cause of complaint. Paragraph 14 of the
Constitutional law of 1867 provided that, in cases of conflict
pressing necessity, orders for which the assent of the between
Reichsrath was required might, if the Reichsrath were Germans
not in session, be proclaimed by the emperor; they had
to be signed by the whole ministry, and if they were
not laid before the Reichsrath within four months of its meeting,
or if they did not receive the approval of both Houses, they
ceased to be valid. The Germans contended that the application
of this clause to the Ausgleich was invalid, and demanded that
it should be repealed. Thun had in consequence to retire, in
September 1899. His successor, Count Clary, began by with-
drawing the ordinances which had been the cause of so much
trouble, but it was now too late to restore peace. The Germans
were not sufficiently strong and united to keep in power a
minister who had brought them the relief for which they had
been clamouring for two years. The Czechs, of course, went
into opposition, and used obstruction. The extreme German
party, however, took the occasion to demand that paragraph
14 should be repealed. Clary explained that this was impossible,
but he gave a formal pledge that he would not use it. The
Czechs, however, prevented him passing a law on excise which
was a necessary part of the agreements with Hungary; it was,
therefore, impossible for him to carry on the government without
breaking his word; there was nothing left for him to do but to
resign, after holding office for less than three months. The
emperor then appointed a ministry of officials, who were not
bound by his pledge, and used paragraph 14 for the necessary
purposes of state. They then made way for a ministry under
Herr v. Korber. During the early months of 1900 matters were
more peaceful, and Korber hoped to be able to arrange a com-
promise; but the Czechs now demanded the restoration of their
language in the internal service of Bohemia, and on 8th June,
by noise and disturbance, obliged the president to suspend the
sitting. The Reichsrath was immediately dissolved, the emperor
having determined to make a final attempt to get together a
parliament with which it would be possible to govern. The
new elections on which so much was to depend did not take
place till January 1901. They resulted in a great increase of
the extreme German Nationalist parties. Schonerer and the
German Radicals — the fanatical German party who in their
new programme advocated union of German Austria with the
German empire — now numbered twenty-one, who chiefly came
from Bohemia. They were able for the first time to procure the
election of one of their party in the Austrian Delegation, and
threatened to introduce into the Assembly scenes of disorder
similar to those which they had made common in the Reichsrath.
All those parties which did not primarily appeal to national
feeling suffered loss; especially was this the case with the two
sections of the Clericals, the Christian Socialists and the Ultra-
montanes; and the increasing enmity between the German
Nationalists (who refused even the name German to a Roman
Catholic) and the Church became one of the most conspicuous
features in the political situation. The loss of seats by the
Socialists showed that even among the working men the national
agitation was gaining ground; the diminished influence of the
anti-Semites was the most encouraging sign.

Notwithstanding the result of the elections, the first months
of the new parliament passed in comparative peace. There was
a truce between the nationalities. The Germans were more
occupied with their opposition to the Clericals than with their
feud with the Slavs. The Czechs refrained from obstruction,
for they did not wish to forfeit the alliance with the Poles
and Conservatives, on which their parliamentary strength
depended, and the Germans used the opportunity to pass
measures for promoting the material prosperity of the country,
especially for an important system of canals which would
bring additional prosperity to the coal-fields and manufactures
of Bohemia. (J. W. HE.)

The history of Austria since the general election of 1901 is the

HISTORY]

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

37

history of franchise reform as a crowning attempt to restore
parliament to normal working conditions. The premier, Dr
von Korber, who had undertaken to overcome obstruc-
tion and who hoped to effect a compromise between
policy. Germans and Czechs, induced the Chamber to sanction
the estimates, the contingent of recruits and other
" necessities of state " for 1901 and 1902, by promising to under-
take large public works in which Czechs and Germans were alike
interested. These public works were chiefly a canal from the
Danube to the Oder; a ship canal from the Danube to the
Moldau near Budweis, and the canalization of the Moldau from
Budweis to Prague; a ship canal running from the projected
Danube-Oder canal near Prerau to the Elbe near Pardubitz,
and the canalization of the Elbe from Pardubitz to Melnik; a
navigable connexion between the Danube-Oder Canal and the
Vistula and the Dniester. It was estimated that the construction
of these four canals would require twenty years, the funds being
furnished by a 4% loan amortizable in ninety years. In addition
to the canals, the cabinet proposed and the Chamber sanctioned
the construction of a " second railway route to Trieste " de-
signed to shorten the distance between South Germany, Salzburg
and the Adriatic, by means of a line passing under the Alpine
ranges of central and southern Austria. The principal sections
of this line were named after the ranges they pierced, the chief
tunnels being bored through the Tauern, Karawanken and
Wochein hills. Sections were to be thrown open to traffic as
soon as completed and the whole work to be ended during 1909.
The line forms one of the most interesting railway routes in
Europe. The cost, however, greatly exceeded the estimate
sanctioned by parliament; and the contention that the parlia-
mentary adoption of the Budget in 1901-1902 cost the state
£100,000,000 for public works, is not entirely unfounded. True,
these works were in most cases desirable and in some cases
• necessary, but they were hastily promised and often hastily
begun under pressure of political expediency. The Korber
administration was for this reason subsequently exposed to
severe censure.

Despite these public works Dr von Korber found himself
unable to induce parliament to vote the Budgets for 1903,
KSrber's IOO4 or IQO5> an<^ was obliged to revert to the expedient
pariia- employed by his predecessors of sanctioning the esti-
meatary mates by imperial ordinance under paragraph 14 of
the constitution. His attempts in December 1902
and January 1903 to promote a compromise between
Czechs and Germans proved equally futile. Korber proposed
that Bohemia be divided into 10 districts, of which 5 would be
Czech, 3 German and 2 mixed. Of the 234 district tribunals,
133 were to be Czech, 94 German and 7 mixed. The Czechs
demanded on the contrary that both their language and German
should be placed on an equal footing throughout Bohemia, and
be used for all official purposes in the same way. As this demand
involved the recognition of Czech as a language of internal
service in Bohemia it was refused by the Germans. Thence-
forward, until his fall on the 3ist of December 1904, Korber
governed practically without parliament. The Chamber was
summoned at intervals rather as a pretext for the subsequent
employment of paragraph 14 than in the hope of securing its
assent to legislative measures. The Czechs blocked business by
a pile of " urgency motions " and occasionally indulged in noisy
obstruction. On one occasion a sitting lasted 57 hours without
interruption. In consequence of Czech aggressiveness, the
German parties (the German Progressists, the German Populists,
the Constitutional Landed Proprietors and the Christian Socialists)
created a joint executive committee and a supreme committee of
four members to watch over German racial interests.

By the end of 1904 it had become clear that the system of

government by paragraph 14, which Dr von Korber had perfected

was not effective in the long run. Loans were needed

(Putsch f°r military an(l other purposes, and paragraph 14

premier. itself declares that it cannot be employed for the

contraction of any lasting burden upon the exchequer,

nor for any sale of state patrimony. As the person of the premier

cultles.

had become so obnoxious to the Czechs that his removal would
be regarded by them as a concession, his resignation was suddenly
accepted by the emperor, and, on the ist of January 1005,
a former premier, Baron von Gautsch, was appointed in his
stead. Parliamentary activity was at once resumed ; the Austrc-
Hungarian tariff contained in the Szell-Korber compact was
adopted, the estimates were discussed and the commercial
treaty with Germany ratified. In the early autumn, however,
a radical change came over the spirit of Austrian politics. For
nearly three years Austria had been watching with bitterness
and depression the course of the crisis in Hungary. Parliament
had repeatedly expressed its disapproval of the Magyar demands
upon the crown, but had succeeded only in demonstrating its
own impotence. The feeling that Austria could be compelled by
imperial ordinance under paragraph 14 to acquiesce in whatever
concessions the crown might make to Hungary galled Austrian
public opinion and prepared it for coming changes. In August
1905 the crown took into consideration and in September
sanctioned the proposal that universal suffrage be introduced
into the official programme of the Fejervary cabinet then engaged
in combating the Coalition in Hungary. It is not to be supposed
that the king of Hungary assented to this programme without
reflecting that what he sought to further in Hungary, it would
be impossible for him, as emperor of Austria, to oppose in
Cisleithania. His subsequent action justifies, indeed, the belief
that, when sanctioning the Fejervary programme, the monarch
had already decided that universal suffrage should be introduced
in Austria; but even he can scarcely have been prepared for the
rapidity with which the movement in Austria gained ground and
accomplished its object.

On the isth of September 1905 a huge socialist and working-
class demonstration in favour of universal suffrage took place
before the parliament at Budapest. The Austrian
Socialist party, encouraged by this manifestation and
influenced by the revolutionary movement in Russia,
resolved to press for franchise reform in Austria also. An initial
demonstration, resulting in some bloodshed, was organized in
Vienna at the beginning of November. At Prague, Graz and
other towns, demonstrations and collisions with the police were
frequent. The premier, Baron Gautsch, who had previously
discountenanced universal suffrage while admitting the desira-
bility of a restricted reform, then changed attitude and per-
mitted an enormous Socialist demonstration, in support of
universal suffrage, to take place (November 28) in the Vienna
Ringstrasse. Traffic was suspended for five hours while an orderly
procession of workmen, ten abreast, marched silently along the
Ringstrasse past the houses of parliament. The demonstration
made a deep impression upon public opinion. On the same day
the premier promised to introduce by February a large measure
of franchise reform so framed as to protect racial minorities
from being overwhelmed at the polls by majorities of other races.
On the 23rd of February 1906 he indeed brought in a series of
franchise reform measures. Their main principles were the
abolition of the curia or electoral class system and the establish-
ment of the franchise on the basis of universal suffrage; and the
division of Austria electorally into racial compartments within
which each race would be assured against molestation from other
races. The Gautsch redistribution bill proposed to increase the
number of constituencies from 425 to 455, to allot a fixed number
of constituencies to each province and, within each province, to
each race according to its numbers and tax-paying capacity.
The reform bill proper proposed to enfranchise every male
citizen above 24 years of age with one year's residential
qualification.

At first the chances of the adoption of such a measure seemed
small. It was warmly supported from outside by the Social
Democrats, who held only n seats in the House; inside, the
Christian Socialists or Lueger party were favourable on the
whole as they hoped to gain seats at the expense of the German
Progressives and German Populists and to extend their own
organization throughout the empire. The Young Czechs, too,
were favourable, while the Poles reserved their attitude. Hostile

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

[HISTORY

premier.

in principle and by instinct, they waited to ascertain the mind of
the emperor, before actively opposing the reform. With the
exception of the German Populists who felt that a German
" Liberal " party could not well oppose an extension of popular
rights, all the German Liberals were antagonistic, some bitterly,
to the measure. The Constitutional Landed Proprietors who
had played so large a part in Austrian politics since the 'sixties,
and had for a generation held the leadership of the German element
in parliament and in the country, saw themselves doomed and
the leadership of the Germans given to the Christian Socialists.
None of the representatives of the curia system fought so
tenaciously for their privileges as did the German nominees of
the curia of large landed proprietors. Their opposition proved
unavailing. The emperor frowned repeatedly upon their efforts.
Baron Gautsch fell in April over a difference with the Poles, and
his successor, Prince Konrad zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst,
who had taken over the reform bills, resigned also,
six weeks later, as a protest against the action of the
crown in consenting to the enactment of a customs
tariff in Hungary distinct from, though identical with,
the joint Austro-Hungarian tariff comprised in the Szell-K6rber
compact and enacted as a joint tariff by the Reichsrath. A new
cabinet was formed (June 2) by Baron von Beck, permanent
under secretary of state in the ministry for agriculture, an
official of considerable ability who had first acquired prominence
as an instructor of the heir apparent, Archduke Francis Ferdinand,
in constitutional and administrative law. By dint of skilful
negotiation with the various parties and races, and steadily
supported by the emperor who, on one occasion, summoned
the recalcitrant party leaders to the Hofburg ad audiendum
•oerbum and told them the reform " must be accomplished,"
Baron Beck succeeded, in October 1906, in attaining a final
agreement, and on the ist of December in securing the adoption
of the reform. During the negotiations the number of con-
stituencies was raised to 516, divided, according to provinces, as
follows: —

Bohemia . . 130 previously no

Galicia . . 106 78

Lower Austria 64 46

Moravia . 49 43

Styria . . 30 27

Tirol . . 25 21

Upper Austria 22 20

Austrian Silesia 15 12

Bukovina . 14 1 1

Carniola . 12 n

Dalrnatia. . n 1 1

Carinthia . 10 IO

Salzburg . . 77

Istria . . 65

Gorz and Gradisca 6 5

Trieste and territory 5 5

Vorarlberg . . . . 4 4

In the allotment of the constituencies to the various races their
tax-paying capacity was taken into consideration. In mixed
districts separate constituencies and registers were established
for the electors of each race, who could only vote on their own
register for a candidate of their own race. Thus Germans were
obliged to vote for Germans and Czechs for Czechs; and, though
there might be victories of Clerical over Liberal Germans or of
Czech Radicals over Young Czechs, there could be no victories
of Czechs over Germans, Poles over Ruthenes, or Slovenes over
Italians. The constituencies were divided according to race as
follows: —

Germans of all parties . . . 233 previously 205

Italians —

Czechs of all parties .... 108

81

Clerical Populists .

Poles 80

71

Liberals . . . .

Southern Slavs* (Slovenes, Croats,

Serbs) 37

27

Rumanians —

Ruthenes 34

ii

Rumanian Club

Italians 19

18

Jews —

Rumanians 5

5

Zionists

These allotments were slightly modified at the polls by the

Democrats . . . .

victory of some Social Democratic candidates not susceptible
of strict racial classification. The chief feature of the allotment

Unclassified, vacancies, &c. .

was, however, the formal overthrow of the fiction that Austria

is preponderatingly a German country and not a country pre-
ponderatingly Slav with a German dynasty and a German
facade. The German constituencies, though allotted in a
proportion unduly favourable, left the Germans, with 233 seats,
in a permanent minority as compared with the 259 Slav seats.
Even with the addition of the " Latin " (Rumanian and Italian)
seats the " German-Latin block " amounted only to 257. This
" block " no longer exists in practice, as the Italians now tend
to co-operate rather with the Slavs than with the Germans.
The greatest gainers by the redistribution were the Ruthenes,
whose representation was trebled, though it is still far from
being proportioned to their numbers. This and other anomalies
will doubtless be corrected in future revisions of the allotment,
although the German parties, foreseeing that any revision must
work out to their disadvantage, stipulated that a two-thirds
majority should be necessary for any alteration of the law.

After unsuccessful attempts by the Upper House to introduce
plural voting, the bill became law in January 1907, the peers
insisting only upon the establishment of a fixed
maximum number or numerus clausus, of non-heredi- election
tary peers, so as to prevent the resistance of the Upper igor.
Chamber from being overwhelmed at any critical
moment by an influx of crown nominees appointed ad hoc. The
general election which took place amid considerable enthusiasm
on the I4th of May resulted in a sweeping victory for the Social
Democrats whose number rose from n to 87; in a less complete
triumph for the Christian Socialists who increased from 27 to 67;
and in the success of the extremer over the conservative elements
in all races. A classification of the groups in the new Chamber
presents many difficulties, but the following statement is approxi-
mately accurate. It must be premised that, in order to render
the Christian Socialist or Lueger party the strongest group in
parliament, an amalgamation was effected between them and
the conservative Catholic party: —

German Conservatives —

Christian Socialists ....

German Agrarians ....
German Liberals —

Progressives

Populists

Pan-German radicals (Wolf group)

Unattached Pan-Germans

,, Progressives .
Czechs-
Czech Agrarians ....

Young Czechs ....

Czech Clericals ....

Old Czechs . . .

Czech National Socialists

Realists .

Unattached Czech ....
Social Democrats —

Of all races

Poles-
Democrats •

Conservatives

Populists

Centre

Independent Socialist
Ruthenes —

National Democrats

Old or Russophil Ruthenes .
Slovenes —

Clericals

Southern Slav Club—

Croats

Serbs

Slovene Liberals '

Total.
96
19

15
29

13

3

2

' 177
28

18
17

7

9

2
I

82
87 87

26

15

18

12
I

25

5
17

20

II

4

4

i

72
30

37

IS

5

516

AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION

39

The legislature elected by universal suffrage worked fairly
smoothly during the first year of its existence. The estimates
were voted with regularity, racial animosity was somewhat less
prominent, and some large issues were debated. The desire not
to disturb the emperor's Diamond Jubilee year by untoward
scenes doubtless contributed to calm political passion, and it
was celebrated in 1908 with complete success. But it was no
sooner over than the crisis over the annexation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, which is dealt with above, eclipsed all purely
domestic affairs in the larger European question. (H. W. S.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — I. Sources. A collection of early authorities
on Austrian history was published in 3 vols. folio by Hieronymus
Fez (Leipzig, 1721-1725) under the title Scriptores rerum Austria-
carum veteres et genuini, of which a new edition was printed at
Regensburg in 1745, and again, under the title of Rerum A ustriacarum
scnptores, by A. Rauch at Vienna in 1793-1794- It was not, how-
ever, till the latter half of the igth century that the vast store of
public and private archives began to be systematically exploited.
Apart from the material published in the Monumenta Germ. Hist.
of Pertz and his collaborators, there are several collections devoted
specially to the sources of Austrian history. Of these the most
notable is the Fontes rerum Austriacarum, published under the
auspices of the Historical Commission of the Imperial Academy
of Sciences at Vienna; the series, of which the first volume was
published in 1855, is divided into two parts : (i.) Scriptores, of which
the gth vol. appeared in 1904; (ii.) Diplomataria et Ada, of which
the 58th vol. appeared in 1906. It covers the whole range of Austrian
history, medieval and modern. Another collection is the Quellen
und Forschungen zur Geschichte, Literatur und Sprache Osterreichs
und seiner Kronlander, edited by J. Him and J. E. Wackernagel
(Graz, 1895, &c.), of which vol. x. appeared in 1906. Besides these
there are numerous accounts and inventories of public and private
archives, for which see Dahlmann-Waitz, Quellenkunde (ed. 1906),
pp. 14-15, 43, and suppl. vol. (1907), pp. 4-5. Of collections of
treaties the most notable is that of L. Neumann, Recueil des traites
conclus par I'Autriche avec les puissances etrangeres depuis 1763
(6 vols., Leipzig, 1855: c.), continued by A. de Plason (18 vols.,
Vienna, 1877-1905). In 1007, however, the Imperial Commission for
the Modern History of Austria issued the first volume of a new
series, Osterreichische Staatsvertrage, which promises to be of the
utmost value. Like the Recueil des traites conclus par la Russie of
T. T. de Martens, it is compiled on the principle of devoting separate
volumes to the treaties entered into with the several states; this
is obviously convenient as enabling the student to obtain a clear
review of the relations of Austria to any particular state throughout
the whole period covered. For treaties see also J. Freiherr von
Vasque von Piittlingen, Vbersicht der osterreichischen Staatsvertrdge
seit Maria Theresa bis auf die neueste Zeit (Vienna, 1868); and
L. Bittner, Chronologisches Verzeichnis der osterreichischen Staats-
vertrdge (Band G, 1526-1723, Vienna, 1903).

2. Works.— (a) General. Archdeacon William Coxe's History
of the House of Austria, 1218-1792 (3 vols., London, 1817), with its
continuation by W. Kelly (London, 1853; new edition, 1873),
remains the only general history of Austria m the English language.
It has, of course, long been superseded as a result of the research
indicated above. The amount of work that has been devoted to this
subject since Coxe's time will be seen from the following list of books,
which are given in the chronological order of their publication: —
J. Majlath, Geschichte des osterreichischen Kaiserstaates (5 vols.,
Hamburg, 1834-1850); Count F. von Hartig, Genesis der Revolution
in Osterreich im Jahre 1848 (Leipzig, 1851; 3rd edition, enlarged,
ib., 1851 ; translated as appendix to Coxe's House of Austria,
ed. 1853), a work which created a great sensation at the time and
remains of much value; W. H. Stiles, Austria in 1848-1840 (2 vols.,
New York, 1852), by an eye-witness of events; M. Biidinger,
Osterreichische Gesch. bis zum Ausgange des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts,
vol. i. to A.D. 1055 (Leipzig, 1858); A. Springer, Geschichte Oster-
reichs seit dent Wiener Frieden, 1809 (2 vols. to 1849; Leipzig, 1863-
1865) ; A. von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresias (io vols., Vienna,
1863-1879); the series Osterreichische Gesch. fur das Volk, 17 vols.,
by various authors (Vienna, 1864, &c.), for which see Dahlmann-
Waitz, p. 86; H. Bidermann, Gesch. der osterreichischen Gesamt-
staatsidee, 1526-1804, parts i and 2 to 1740 (Innsbruck, 1867, 1887);
J. A. Freiherr von Helfert, Gesch. Osterreichs vom Ausgange des
Oktoberaufstandes, 1848, vols. i.-iy. (Leipzig and Prague, 1869-
1889) ; W. Rogge, Osterreich von Vildgos bis zur Gegenwart (3 vols.,
Leipzig and Vienna, 1872, 1873), and Osterreich seit der Katastrophe
Hohenwart-Beust (Leipzig, 1879), written from a somewhat violent
German standpoint; Franz X. Krones (Ritter von Marchland),
Handbuch der Gesch. Osterreichs (5 vols., Berlin, 1876-1879), with
copious references, Gesch. der Neuzeit Osterreichs vom iSten Jahr-
hundert bis auf die Gegenwart (Berlin, 1879), from the German-liberal
point of view, and Grundriss der osterreichischen Gesch. (Vienna,
1882); Baron Henry de Worms, The Austro-Hungarian Empire
(London, 2nd ed., 1876); Louis Asseline, Histoire de I'Autriche
depuis la mart de Marie Therlse (Paris, 1877), sides with the Slavs
against Germans and Magyars; Louis Leger, Hist, de I'Aulriche-

Hongrie (Paris, 1879), also strongly Slavophil; A. Wolf, Geschicht-
liche Bilder aus Osterreich (2 vols., Vienna, 1878-1880), and Oster-
reich unter Maria Theresia, Joseph II. und Leopold I. (Berlin, 1882) ;
E. Wertheimer, Gesch. Osterreichs und Ungarns im ersten Jahrzehnt
des loten Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Leipzig. 1884-1890); A. Huber,
Gesch. Osterreichs, vols. i. to v. up to 1648 (in Heeren's Gesch.
der europ. Staaten, Gotha, 1885-1895); J. Emmer, Kaiser Franz
Joseph I., fiinfzig Jahre osterreichischer Gesch. (2 vols., Vienna,
1898); F. M. Mayer, Gesch. Osterreichs mil besonderer Rucksicht auf
das Kulturleben (2 vols. 2nd ed., Vienna, 1900-1001); A. Dopsch,
Forschungen zur inneren Gesch. Osterreichs, vol. i. i (Innsbruck, 1003) ;
Louis Eisenmann, Le Compromis austro-hongrois de 1867 (Pans,
1904); H. Friedjung, Osterreich von 1848 bis 1860 (Stuttgart,
1908 seq.); Geoffrey Drage, Austria-Hungary (London, 1900).

(b) Constitutional. — E. Werunsky, Osterreichische Reichs- und
Rechtsgeschichte (Vienna, 1894, &c.); A. Bechmann, Lehrbuch der
osterreichischen Reichsgesch. (Prague, 1895-1896); A. Huber,
Osterreichische Reichsgesch. (Leipzig and Vienna, 1895, 2nd ed. by
A. Dopsch, ib., 1901); A. Luscnin von Ebengreuth, Osterreichische
Reichsgesch. (2 vols., Bamberg, 1895, 1896), a work of first-class
importance; and Grundriss der osterreichischen Reichsgesch. (Bam-
berg, 1899); G. Kolmer, Parlament und Verfassung in Osterreich,
vols. i. to iii. from 1848 to 1885 (Vienna, 1902-1905). For relations
with Hungary see I. Andrassy, Ungarns Ausgleich mil Osterreich,
1867 (Leipzig, 1897); L. Eisenmann, Le Compromis austro-hongrois
de 1867 (Pans, 1904).

(c) Diplomatic.— A Beer, Zehn Jahre osterreichischer Politik, 1801-
1810 (Leipzig, 1877), and Die orientalische Politik Osterreichs seit
1774 (Prague and Leipzig, 1883); A. Fournier, Gentz und Cobenzl:
Gesch. der ost. Politik in den Jahren 1801-1805 (Vienna, 1880); F.
von Demelitsch, Metternich und seine auswdrlige Politik, vol. i.
(1809-1812, Stuttgart, 1898); H. Ubersberger, Osterreich und
Russland seit dent Ende des iften Jahrhunderts, vol. i. 1488 to 1605
(Kommission fur die neuere Gesch. Osterreichs, Vienna, 1905). See
further the bibliographies to the articles on METTERNICH, GENTZ,
&c. For the latest developments of the " Austrian question " see
Andre Cheradame, L' Europe et la question d'Autriche au seuil du
XX' siecle (Paris, 1901), and L'Allemagne, la France et la question
d'Autriche (76, 1902); Rene Henry, Questions d'Aulriche-Hongrie
et question a' orient (Paris, 1903), with preface by Anatole Leroy-
Beaulieu; " Scotus Viator," The Future of Austria-Hungary (London,
1907).

(d) Racial Question. — There is a very extensive literature on the
question of languages and race in Austria. The best statement of
the legal questions involved is in Josef Ulbrith and Ernst Mischler's
Osterr. Staatswbrterbuch (3 vols., Vienna, 1894-1897; 2nd ed. 1904,
&c.). See also Dummreicher, Sudostdeutsche Betrachtungen(Leipzig,
1893); Hainisch, Die Zukunft der Deutsch-Osterreither (Vienna,
1892); Herkner, Die Zukunft der Deutsch-Osterreicher (ib. 1893);
L. Leger, La Save, le Danube et le Balkan (Paris, 1884); Bressnitz
von Sydacoff, Die panslavistische Agitation (Berlin, 1899) ; Bertrand
Auerbach, Les Races et les nationalites en Autriche-Hongrie (Paris,
1898).

(e) Biographical. — C. von Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexikon des
Kaisertums Osterreich (60 vols., Vienna, 1856-1891); also the All-
gemeine deutsche Biographie.

Many further authorities, whether works, memoirs or collections
of documents, are referred to in the lists appended to the articles in
this book on the various Austrian sovereigns and statesmen. For
full bibliography see Dahlmann-Waitz, Quellenkunde (ed. 1906, and
subsequent supplements) ; many works, covering particular periods,
are also enumerated in the bibliographies in the several volumes of
the Cambridge Modern History. (W. A. P.)

AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE (i74o-I748). This
war began with the invasion of Silesia by Frederick II. of Prussia
in 1740, and was ended by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen)
in 1748. After 1741 nearly all the powers of Europe were
involved in the struggle, but the most enduring interest of the
war lies in the struggle of Prussia and Austria for Silesia. South-
west Germany, the Low Countries and Italy were, as usual, the
battle-grounds of France and Austria. The constant allies of
France and Prussia were Spain and Bavaria; various other
powers at intervals joined them. The cause of Austria was
supported almost as a matter of course by England and Holland,
the traditional enemies of France. Of Austria's allies from
time to time Sardinia and Saxony were the most important.

i. Frederick's Invasion of Silesia, 1740. — Prussia in 1740
was a small, compact and thoroughly organized power, with an
army 100,000 strong. The only recent war service of this army
had been in the desultory Rhine campaign of 1733-35. It was
therefore regarded as one of the minor armies of Europe, and
few thought that it could rival the forces of Austria and France.
But it was drilled to a perfection not hitherto attained, and the
Prussian infantry soldier was so well trained and equipped that

AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION

he could fire five shots to the Austrian's three, though the
cavalry and artillery were less efficient. But the initial advantage
of Frederick's army was that it had, undisturbed by wars,
developed the standing army theory to full effect. While the
Austrians had to wait for drafts to complete the field forces,
Prussian regiments could take the field at once, and thus
Frederick was able to overrun Silesia almost unopposed. His
army was concentrated quietly upon the Oder, and without
declaration of war, on the i6th of December 1740, it crossed
the frontier into Silesia. The Austrian generals could do no
more than garrison a few fortresses, and with the small remnant
of their available forces fell back to the mountain frontier of
Bohemia and Moravia. The Prussian army was soon able to
go into winter quarters, holding all Silesia and investing the
strong places of Glogau, Brieg and Neisse.

2. Silesian Campaign of 1741. — In February 1741, the
Austrians collected a field army under Count Neipperg (1684-
1774) and made preparations to reconquer Silesia. The
Austrians in Neisse and Brieg still held out. Glogau, however,
was stormed on the night of the gth of March, the Prussians,
under Prince Leopold (the younger) of Anhalt-Dessau, executing
their task in one hour with a mathematical precision which
excited universal admiration. But the Austrian army in Moravia
was now in the field, and Frederick's cantonments were dispersed
over all Upper Silesia. It was a work of the greatest difficulty
to collect the army, for the ground was deep in snow, and before
it was completed Neisse was relieved and the Prussians cut off
from their own country by the march of Neipperg from Neisse
on Brieg; a few days of slow manoeuvring between these places
ended in the battle of Mollwitz (loth April 1741), the first pitched
battle fought by Frederick and his army. The Prussian right
wing of cavalry was speedily routed, but the day was retrieved
by the magnificent discipline and tenacity of the infantry.
The Austrian cavalry was shattered in repeated attempts to
ride them down, and before the Prussian volleys the Austrian
infantry, in spite of all that Neipperg and his officers could do,
gradually melted away. After a stubborn contest the Prussians
remained masters of the field. Frederick himself was tar away.
He had fought in the cavalry melee, but after this, when the
battle seemed lost, he had been persuaded by Field Marshal
Schwerin to ride away. ; Schwerin thus, like Marshal Saxe at
Fontenoy, remained behind to win the victory, and the king
narrowly escaped being captured by wandering Austrian hussars.
The immediate result of the battle was that the king secured
Brieg, and Neipperg fell back to Neisse, where he maintained
himself and engaged in a war of manoeuvre during the summer.
But Europe realized suddenly that a new military power had
arisen, and France sent Marshal Belleisle to Frederick's camp to
negotiate an alliance. Thenceforward the " Silesian adventure "
became the War of the Austrian Succession. The elector of
Bavaria's candidature for the imperial dignity was to be sup-
ported by a French "auxiliary" army, and other French
forces were sent to observe Hanover. Saxony was already
watched by a Prussian army under Prince Leopold of Anhalt-
Dessau, the "old Dessauer," who had trained the Prussian army
to its present perfection. The task of Sweden was to prevent
Russia from attacking Prussia, but her troops were defeated, on
the 3rd of September 1741, at Wilmanstrand by a greatly
superior Russian army, and in 1742 another great reverse was
sustained in the capitulation of Helsingfors. In central Italy
an army of Neapolitans and Spaniards was collected for the
conquest of the Milanese.

3. The Allies in Bohemia. — The French duly joined the
elector's forces on the Danube and advanced on Vienna; but
the objective was suddenly changed, and after many counter-
marches the allies advanced, in three widely-separated corps, on
Prague. A French corps moved via Amberg and Pilsen. The
elector marched on Budweis, and the Saxons (who had now
joined the allies) invaded Bohemia by the Elbe valley. The
Austrians could at first offer little resistance, but before long a
considerable force intervened at Tabor between the Danube and
the allies, and Neipperg was now on the march from Neisse to

join in the campaign. He had made with Frederick the curious
agreement of Klein Schnellendorf (gth October 1741), by which
Neisse was surrendered after a mock siege, and the Austrians
undertook to leave Frederick unmolested in return for his
releasing Neipperg's army for service elsewhere. At the same
time the Hungarians, moved to enthusiasm by the personal
appeal of Maria Theresa, had put into the field a levee en masse,
or " insurrection," which furnished the regular army with an
invaluable force of light troops. A fresh army was collected
under Field Marshal Khevenhiiller at Vienna, and the Austrians
planned an offensive winter campaign against the Franco-
Bavarian forces in Bohemia and the small Bavarian army that
remained on the Danube to defend the electorate. The French
in the meantime had stormed Prague on the 26th of November,
the grand-duke Francis, consort of Maria Theresa, who com-
manded the Austrians in Bohemia, moving too slowly to save the
fortress. The elector of Bavaria, who now styled himself arch-
duke of Austria, was crowned king of Bohemia (ipth December
1741) and elected to the imperial throne as Charles VII. (24th
January 1742), but no active measures were undertaken. In
Bohemia the month of December was occupied in mere skirmishes.
On the Danube, Khevenhiiller, the best general in the Austrian
service, advanced on the 27th of December, swiftly drove back
the allies, shut them up in Linz, and pressed on into Bavaria.
Munich itself surrendered to the Austrians on the coronation day
of Charles VII. At the close of this first act of the campaign
the French, under the old Marshal de Broglie, maintained a
precarious foothold in central Bohemia, menaced by the main
army of the Austrians, and Khevenhiiller was ranging unopposed
in Bavaria, while Frederick, in pursuance of his secret obligations,
lay inactive in Silesia. In Italy the allied Neapolitans and
Spaniards had advanced towards Modena, the duke of which
state had allied himself with them, but the vigilant Austrian
commander Count Traun had outmarched them, captured
Modena, and forced the duke to make a separate peace.

4. Campaign of 1742. — Frederick had hoped by the truce
to secure Silesia, for which alone he was fighting. But with the
successes of Khevenhiiller and the enthusiastic " insurrection "
of. Hungary, Maria Theresa's opposition became firmer, and she
divulged the provisions of the truce, in order to compromise
Frederick with his allies. The war recommenced. Frederick
had not rested on his laurels; in the uneventful summer cam-
paign of 1741 he had found time to begin that reorganization of
his cavalry which was before long to make it even more efficient
than his infantry. Charles VII., whose territories were overrun
by the Austrians, asked him to create a diversion by invading
Moravia. In December 1741, therefore, Schwerin had crossed
the border and captured Olmiitz. Glatz also was invested, and
the Prussian army was concentrated about Olmiitz in January
1742. A combined plan of operations was made by the French,
Saxons and Prussians for the rescue of Linz. But Linz soon fell;
Broglie on the Moldau, weakened by the departure of the
Bavarians to oppose Khevenhiiller, and of the Saxons to join
forces with Frederick, was in no condition to take the offensive,
and large forces under Prince Charles of Lorraine lay in his front
from Budweis to Iglau. Frederick's march was made towards
Iglau in the first place. Briinn was invested about the same
time (February), but the direction of the march was changed,
and instead of moving against Prince Charles, Frederick pushed
on southwards by Znaim and Nikolsburg. The extreme outposts
of the Prussians appeared before Vienna. But Frederick's
advance was a mere foray, and Prince Charles, leaving a screen
of troops in front of Broglie, marched to cut off the Prussians
from Silesia, while the Hungarian levies poured into Upper
Silesia by the Jablunka Pass. The Saxons, discontented and
demoralized, soon marched off to their own country, and
Frederick with his Prussians fell back by Zwittau and Leuto-
mischl to Kuttenberg in Bohemia, where he was in touch with
Broglie on the one hand and (Glatz having now surrendered)
with Silesia on the other. No defence of Olmiitz was attempted,
and the small Prussian corps remaining in Moravia fell back
towards Upper Silesia. Prince Charles, in pursuit of the king,

AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION

marched by Iglau and Teutsch (Deutsch) Brod on Kuttenberg,
and on the lyth of May was fought the battle of Chotusitz or
Czaslau, in which after a severe struggle the king was victorious.
His cavalry on this occasion retrieved its previous failure, and
its conduct gave an earnest of its future glory not only by its
charges on the battlefield, but its vigorous pursuit of the defeated
Austrians. Almost at the same time Broglie fell upon a part of
the Austrians left on the Moldau and won a small, but morally
and politically important, success in the action of Sahay, near
Budweis (May 24, 1742). Frederick did not propose another
combined movement. His victory and that of Broglie dis-
posed Maria Theresa to cede Silesia in order to make good
her position elsewhere, and the separate peace between Prussia
and Austria, signed at Breslau on the nth of June, closed
the First Silesian War. The War of the Austrian Succession
continued.

5. The French at Prague. — The return of Prince Charles,
released by the peace of Breslau, put an end to Broglie's offensive.
The prince pushed back the French posts everywhere, and his
army converged upon Prague, where, towards the end of June
1742, the French were to all intents and purposes surrounded.
Broglie had made the best resistance possible with his inferior
forces, and still displayed great activity, but his position was one
of great peril. The French government realized at last that
it had given its general inadequate forces. The French army
on the lower Rhine, hitherto in observation of Hanover and other
possibly hostile states, was hurried into Franconia. Prince
Charles at once raised the siege of Prague (September 14),
called up Khevenhuller with the greater part of the Austrian
army on the Danube, and marched towards Amberg to meet the
new opponent. Marshal Maillebois (1682-1762), its commander,
then manoeuvred from Amberg towards the Eger valley, to gain
touch with Broglie. Marshal Belleisle, the political head of
French affairs in Germany and a very capable general, had
accompanied Broglie throughout, and it seems that Belleisle
and Broglie believed that Maillebois' mission was to regain a
permanent foothold for the army in Bohemia; Maillebois,
on the contrary, conceived that his work was simply to disengage
the army of Broglie from its dangerous position, and to cover
its retreat. His operations were no more than a demonstration,
and had so little effect that Broglie was sent for in haste to
take over the command from him, Belleisle at the same time
taking over charge of the army at Prague. Broglie's command
was now on the Danube, east of Regensburg, and the imperial
(chiefly Bavarian) army of Charles VII. under Seckendorf aided
him to clear Bavaria of the Austrians. This was effected with
ease, for Khevenhuller and most of his troops had gone to
Bohemia. Prince Charles and Khevenhuller now took post
between Linz and Passau, leaving a strong force to deal with
Belleisle in Prague. This, under Prince Lobkowitz, was little
superior in numbers or quality to the troops under Belleisle,
under whom served Saxe and the best of the younger French
generals, but its light cavalry swept the country clear of pro-
visions. The French were quickly on the verge of starvation,
winter had come, and the marshal resolved to retreat. On the
night of the i6th of December 1742, the army left Prague to
be defended by a small garrison under Chevert, and took the
route of Eger. The retreat (December 16-26) was accounted
a triumph of generalship, but the weather made it painful and
costly. The brave Chevert displayed such confidence that
the Austrians were glad to allow him freedom to join the main
army. The cause of the new emperor was now sustained only
in the valley of the Danube, where Broglie and Seckendorf
opposed Prince Charles and Khevenhuller, who were soon joined
by the force lately opposing Belleisle.

In Italy, Traun held his own with ease against the Spaniards
and Neapolitans. Naples was forced by a British squadron to
withdraw her troops for home defence, and Spain, now too weak
to advance in the Po valley, sent a second army to Italy via
France. Sardinia had allied herself with Austria, and at the same
time neither state was at war with France, and this led to curious
complications, combats being fought in the Isere valley between

the troops of Sardinia and of Spain, in which the French took
no part.

6. The Campaign of 1743 opened disastrously for the emperor.
The French and Bavarian armies were not working well to-
gether, and Broglie and Seckendorf had actually quarrelled.
No connected resistance was offered to the converging march
of Prince Charles's army along the Danube, Khevenhuller from
Salzburg towards southern Bavaria, and Prince Lobkowitz
(1685-1755) from Bohemia towards the Naab. The Bavarians
suffered a severe reverse near Braunau (May 9, 1743), and now
an Anglo-allied army commanded by King George II., which
had been formed on the lower Rhine on the withdrawal of
Maillebois, was advancing southward to the Main and Neckar
country. A French army, under Marshal Noailles, was being
collected on the middle Rhine to deal with this new force. But
Broglie was now in full retreat, and the strong places of Bavaria
surrendered one after the other to Prince Charles. The French
and Bavarians had been driven almost to the Rhine when
Noailles and the king came to battle. George, completely
outmanoeuvred by his veteran antagonist, was in a position of
the greatest danger between Aschaffenburg and Hanau in the
defile formed by the Spessart Hills and the river Main. Noailles
blocked the outlet and had posts all around, but the allied
troops forced their way through and inflicted heavy losses on
the French, and the battle of Dettingen is justly reckoned as
a notable victory of the British arms (June 27). Both Broglie,
who, worn out by age and exertions, was soon replaced by
Marshal Coigny (1670-1759), and Noailles were now on the strict
defensive behind the Rhine. Not a single French soldier re-
mained in Germany, and Prince Charles prepared to force the
passage of the great river in the Breisgau while the king of
England moved forward via Mainz to co-operate by drawing
upon himself the attention of both the French marshals. The
Anglo-allied army took Worms, but after several unsuccessful
attempts to cross, Prince Charles went into winter quarters.
The king followed his example, drawing in his troops to the north-
ward, to deal, if necessary, with the army which the French
were collecting on the frontier of Flanders. Austria, England,
Holland and Sardinia were now allied. Saxony changed sides,
and Sweden and Russia neutralized each other (peace of Abo,
August 1743). Frederick was still quiescent; France, Spain
and Bavaria alone continued actively the struggle against Maria
Theresa.

In Italy, the Spaniards on the Panaro had achieved a Pyrrhic
victory over Traun at Campo Santo (February 8, 1743), but the
next six months were wasted in inaction, and Lobkowitz, joining
Traun with reinforcements from Germany, drove back the
enemy to Rimini. The Spanish-Piedmontese war in the Alps
continued without much result, the only incident of note being
a combat at Casteldelfmo won by the king of Sardinia in person.

7. Campaign of 1744. — With 1744 began the Second Silesian
War. Frederick, disquieted by the universal success of the
Austrian cause, secretly concluded a fresh alliance with Louis XV.
France had posed hitherto as an auxiliary, her officers in Germany
had worn the Bavarian cockade, and only with England was she
officially at war. She now declared war direct upon Austria
and Sardinia (April 1744). A corps was assembled at Dunkirk
to support the cause of the Pretender in Great Britain, and Louis
in person, with 00,000 men, prepared to invade the Austrian
Netherlands, and took Menin and Ypres. His presumed
opponent was the allied army previously under King George and
now composed of English, Dutch, Germans and Austrians. On
the Rhine, Coigny was to make head against Prince Charles,
and a fresh army under the prince de Conti was to assist the
Spaniards in Piedmont and Lombardy. This plan was, however,
at once dislocated by the advance of Charles, who, assisted by
the veteran Traun, skilfully manoeuvred his army over the Rhine
near Philipsburg (July i), captured the lines of Weissenburg,
and cut off the French marshal from Alsace. Coigny, however,
cut his way through the enemy at Weissenburg and posted him-
self near Strassburg. Louis XV. now abandoned the invasion
of Flanders, and his army moved down to take a decisive part

AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION

in the war in Alsace and Lorraine. At the same time Frederick
crossed the Austrian frontier (August).

The attention and resources of Austria were fully occupied,
and the Prussians were almost unopposed. One column passed
through Saxony, another through Lusatia, while a third advanced
from Silesia. Prague, the objective, was reached on the 2nd of
September. Six days later the Austrian garrison was compelled
to surrender, and the Prussians advanced to Budweis. Maria
Theresa once again rose to the emergency, a new " insurrection"
took the field in Hungary, and a corps of regulars was assembled
to cover Vienna, while the diplomatists won over Saxony to the
Austrian side. Prince Charles withdrew from Alsace, unmolested
by the French, who had been thrown into confusion by the
sudden and dangerous illness of Louis XV. at Metz. Only
Seckendorf with the Bavarians pursued him. No move was
made by the French, and Frederick thus found himself after
all isolated and exposed to the combined attack of the Austrians
and Saxons. Marshal Traun, summoned from the Rhine, held
the king in check in Bohemia, the Hungarian irregulars inflicted
numerous minor reverses on the Prussians, and finally Prince
Charles arrived with the main army. The campaign resembled
that of 1742; the Prussian retreat was closely watched, and
the rearguard pressed hard. Prague fell, and Frederick, com-
pletely outmanoeuvred by the united forces of Prince Charles
and Traun, regained Silesia with heavy losses. At the same
time, the Austrians gained no foothold in Silesia itself. On the
Rhine, Louis, now recovered, had besieged and taken Freiburg,
after which the forces left in the north were reinforced and
besieged the strong places of Flanders. There was also a slight
war of manoeuvre on the middle Rhine.

In 1 744 the Italian war became for the first time serious. A
grandiose plan of campaign was formed, and as usual the French
and Spanish generals at the front were hampered by the orders
of their respective governments. The object was to unite the
army in Dauphine with that on the lower Po. The adhesion of
Genoa was secured, and a road thereby obtained into central
Italy. But Lobkowitz had already taken the offensive and
driven back the Spanish army of Count de Gages towards the
Neapolitan frontier. The king of Naples at this juncture was
compelled to assist the Spaniards at all hazards. A combined
army was formed at Velletri, and defeated Lobkowitz there on
the nth of August. The crisis past, Lobkowitz then went to
Piedmont to assist the king against Conti, the king of Naples
returned home, and de Gages followed the Austrians with a
weak force. The war in the Alps and the Apennines was keenly
contested. Villefranche and Montalban were stormed by Conti
on the 2oth of April, a desperate fight took place at Peyre-Longue
on the i8th of July, and the king of Sardinia was defeated in a
great battle at Madonna del Olmo (September 30) near Coni
(Cuneo) . Conti did not, however, succeed in taking this fortress,
and had to retire into Dauphin6 for his winter quarters. The
two armies had, therefore, failed in their attempt to combine,
and the Austro-Sardinians still lay between them.

8. Campaign of 1745. — The interest of the next campaign
centres in the three greatest battles of the war — Hohenfriedberg,
Kesselsdorf and Fontenoy. The fisst event of the year was the
Quadruple Alliance of England, Austria, Holland and Saxony,
concluded at Warsaw on the 8th of January. Twelve days
previously, the death of Charles VII. submitted the imperial
title to a new election, and his successor in Bavaria was not a
candidate. The Bavarian army was again unfortunate; caught
in its scattered winter quarters (action of Amberg, January 7),
it was driven from point to point, and the young elector had to
abandon Munich once more. The peace of Fiissen followed on
the 22nd of April, by which he secured his hereditary states on
condition of supporting the candidature of the grand-duke
Francis, consort of Maria Theresa. The " imperial " army
ceased ipso facto to exist, and Frederick was again isolated. No
help was to be expected from France, whose efforts this year
were centred on the Flanders campaign. In effect, on the loth
of May, before Frederick took the field, Louis XV. and Saxe
had besieged Tournay, and inflicted upon the relieving army of

the duke of Cumberland the great defeat of Fontenoy (q.v.).
In Silesia the customary small war had been going on for some
time, and the concentration of the Prussian army was not
effected without severe fighting. At the end of May, Frederick,
withabout 65,000 men, lay in the camp of Frankenstein, between
Glatz and Neisse, while behind the Riesengebirge about Landshut
Prince Charles had 85,000 Austrians and Saxons. On the 4th
of June was fought the battle of Hohenfriedberg (q.v.) or Striegau,
the greatest victory as yet of Frederick's career, and, of all his
battles, excelled perhaps by Leuthen and Rossbach only.
Prince Charles suffered a complete defeat and withdrew through
the mountains as he had come. Frederick's pursuit was method-
ical, for the country was difficult and barren, and he did not
know the extent to which the enemy was demoralized. The
manoeuvres of both leaders on the upper Elbe occupied all the
summer, while the political questions of the imperial election
and of an understanding between Prussia and England were
pending. The chief efforts of Austria were directed towards
the valleys of the Main and Lahn and Frankfort, where the
French and Austrian armies manoeuvred for a position from
which to overawe the electoral body. Marshal Traun was
successful, and the grand-duke became the emperor Francis I.
on the i3th of September. Frederick agreed with England to
recognize the election a few days later, but Maria Theresa would
not conform to the treaty of Breslau without a further appeal
to the fortune of war. Saxony joined in this last attempt. A
new advance of Prince Charles quickly brought on the battle
of Soor, fought on ground destined to be famous in the war of
1866. Frederick was at first in a position of great peril, but his
army changed front in the face of the advancing enemy and by
its boldness and tenacity won 'a remarkable victory (September
30). But the campaign was not ended. An Austrian contingent
from the Main joined the Saxons under Marshal Rutowski, and a
combined movement was made in the direction of Berlin by
Rutowski from Saxony and Prince Charles from Bohemia. The
danger was very great. Frederick hurried up his forces from
Silesia and marched as rapidly as possible on Dresden, winning
the actions of Katholisch-Hennersdorf (November 24) and
Gorlitz (November 25). Prince Charles was thereby forced
back, and now a second Prussian army under the old Dessauer
advanced up the Elbe from Magdeburg to meet Rutowski.
The latter took up a strong position at Kesselsdorf between
Meissen and Dresden, but the veteran Leopold attacked him
directly and without hesitation (December 14). The Saxons
and their allies were completely routed after a hard struggle,
and Maria Theresa at last gave way. In the peace of Dresden
(December 25) Frederick recognized the imperial election, and
retained Silesia, as at the peace of Breslau.

9. Operations in Italy, 1745-1747. — The campaign in Italy
this year was also no mere war of posts. In March 1745
a secret treaty allied the Genoese republic with France, Spain
and Naples. A change in the command of the Austrians
favoured the first move of the allies. De Gages moved from
Modena towards Lucca, the French arid Spaniards in the Alps
under Marshal Maillebois advanced through the Riviera to
the Tanaro, and in the middle of July the two armies were
at last concentrated between the Scrivia and the Tanaro,
to the unusally large number of 80,000. A swift march on
Piacenza drew the Austrian commander thither, and in his
absence the allies fell upon and completely defeated the Sardinians
at Bassignano (September 27), a victory which was quickly
followed by the capture of Alessandria, Valenza and Casale.
Jomini calls the concentration of forces which effected the
victory " le plus remarquable de toute la guerre." But the
complicated politics of Italy brought it about that Maillebois
was ultimately unable to turn his victory to account. Indeed,
early in 1746, Austrian troops, freed by the peace with Frederick,
passed through Tirol into Italy; the Franco-Spanish winter
quarters were brusquely attacked, and a French garrison of
6000 men at Asti was forced to capitulate. At the same time
Count Browne with an Austrian corps struck at the allies on the
lower Po, and cut off their communication with the main body

AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION

43

in Piedmont. A series of minor actions thus completely destroyed
the great concentration. The allies separated, Maillebois
covering Liguria, the Spaniards marching against Browne. The
latter was promptly and heavily reinforced, and all that the
Spaniards could do was to entrench themselves at Piacenza;
the Spanish Infant as supreme commander calling up Maillebois
to his aid. The French, skilfully conducted and marching
rapidly, joined forces once more, but their situation was critical,
for only two marches behind them the army of the king of
Sardinia was in pursuit, and before them lay the principal army
of the Austrians. The pitched battle of Piacenza (June 16) was
hard fought, and Maillebois had nearly achieved a victory when
orders from the Infant compelled him to retire. That the army
escaped at all was in the highest degree creditable to Maillebois
and to his son and chief of staff, under whose leadership it
eluded both the Austrians and the Sardinians, defeated an
Austrian corps in the battle of Rottofreddo (August 12), and
made good its retreat on Genoa. It was, however, a mere remnant
of the allied army which returned, and the Austrians were soon
masters of north Italy, including Genoa (September). But they
met with no success in their forays towards the Alps. Soon
Genoa revolted from the oppressive rule of the victors, rose and
drove out the Austrians (December 5-11), and the French, now
commanded by Belleisle, took the offensive (1747). Genoa
held out against a second Austrian siege, and after the plan of
campaign had as usual been referred to Paris and Madrid, it
was relieved, though a picked corps of the French army under
the chevalier de Belleisle, brother of the marshal, was defeated
in the almost impossible attempt (July 19) to storm the en-
trenched pass of Exiles (Col di Assietta), the chevalier, and with
him the elite of the French nobility, being killed at the barricades.
Before the steady advance of Marshal Belleisle the Austrians
retired into Lombardy, and a desultory campaign was waged
up to the conclusion of peace.

In North America the most remarkable incident of what
has been called " King George's War " was the capture of the
French Canadian fortress of Louisburg by a British expedition
(April 2o-June 16, 1745), of which the military portion was
furnished by the colonial militia under Colonel (afterwards
Lieu tenant-General Sir William) Pepperell (1696-1759) of
Maine. Louisburg was then regarded merely as a nest of priva-
teers, and at the peace it was given up, but in the Seven Years'
War it came within the domain of grand strategy, and its second
capture was the preliminary step to the British conquest of
Canada. For the war in India, see INDIA: History.

10. Later Campaigns. — The last three campaigns of the war
in the Netherlands were illustrated by the now fully developed
genius of Marshal Saxe. After Fontenoy the French carried all
before them. The withdrawal of most of the English to aid in
suppressing the 'Forty-Five rebellion at home left their allies in
a helpless position. In 1746 the Dutch and the Austrians were
driven back towards the line of the Meuse, and most of the
important fortresses were taken by the French. The battle of
Roucoux (or Raucourt) near Liege, fought on the i ith of October
between the allies under Prince Charles of Lorraine and the
French under Saxe, resulted in a victory for the latter. Holland
itself was now in danger, and when in April 1747 Saxe's army,
which had now conquered the Austrian Netherlands up to the
Meuse, turned its attention to the United Provinces, the old
fortresses on the frontier offered but slight resistance. The
prince of Orange and the duke of Cumberland underwent a severe
defeat at Lauffeld (Lawfeld, &c., also called Val) on the 2nd of
July 1747, and Saxe, after his victory, promptly and secretly
despatched a corps under (Marshal) Lowendahl to besiege Bergen-
op-Zoom. On the i8th of September Bergen-op-Zoom was
stormed by the French, and in the last year of the war Maestricht,
attacked by the entire forces of Saxe and Lowendahl, surrendered
on the 7th of May 1748. A large Russian army arrived on the
Meuse to join the allies, but too late to be of use. The quarrel
of Russia and Sweden had been settled by the peace of Abo in
1 743, and in 1746 Russia had allied herself with Austria. Eventu-
ally a large army marched from Moscow to the Rhine, an event

which was not without military significance, and in a manner
preluded the great invasions of 1813-1814 and 1815. The
general peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) was signed on the
1 8th of October 1748.

n. General Character of the War. — Little need be said of the
military features of the war. The intervention of Prussia as a
military power was indeed a striking phenomenon, but her
triumph was in a great measure due to her fuller application of
principles of tactics and discipline universally recognized though
less universally enforced. The other powers reorganized their
forces after the war, not so much on the Prussian model as on the
basis of a stricter application of known general principles.
Prussia, moreover, was far ahead of all the other continental
powers in administration, and over Austria, in particular, her
advantage in this matter was almost decisive of the struggle.
Added to this was the personal ascendancy of Frederick, not yet
a great general, but energetic and resolute, and, further, opposed
to generals who were responsible for their men to their individual
sovereigns. These advantages have been decisive in many wars,
almost in all. The special feature of the war of 1740 to 1748,
and of other wars of the time, is the extraordinary disparity
between the end and the means. The political schemes to be
executed by the French and other armies were as grandiose as
any of modern times; their execution, under the then conditions
of time and space, invariably fell short of expectation, and the
history of the war proves, as that of the Seven Years' War was
to prove, that the small standing army of the i8th century
could conquer by degrees, but could not deliver a decisive blow.
Frederick alone, with a definite end and proportionate means
wherewith to achieve it, succeeded completely. The French,
in spite of their later victories, obtained so little of what they
fought for that Parisians could say to each other, when they
met in the streets, " You are as stupid as the Peace." And if,
when fighting for their own hand, the governments of Europe
could so fail of their purpose, even less was to be expected when
the armies were composed of allied contingents, sent to the war
each for a different object. The allied national armies of 1813
co-operated loyally, for they had much at stake and worked for
a common object; those of 1741 represented the divergent
private interests of the several dynasties, and achieved nothing.

^BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Besides general works on Frederick's life and
reign, of which Carlyle, Preuss and v. Taysen are of particular
importance, and Frederick's own works, see the Prussian official Die
I. und II. schlesischen Kriege (Berlin, 1890-1895) ; Austrian official
Kriege der Kaiserin Maria Theresia; Gesch. des osterr. Erbfolge-
krieges (Vienna, from 1895) ; Jpmini, Traite des grandes operations
militaires, introduction to vol. i. (Paris, 4th edition, 1851); C. von
B.-K., Geist und Staff im Kriege (Vienna, 1895); v. Arneth, Maria
Teresias ersten Regierungsjahre(i86z) '• v.Schoning, Die -; erste Jahre
der Regierung Friedrichs des Grossen; Bernhardi, Friedrich der
Grosse als Feldherr (Berlin, 1881); v. Canitz, Nachrichten, &c., iiber
die Taten und Schicksale der Reiterei, &c. (Berlin, 1861) ; Grunhagen,
Gesch. des I. schlesischen Krieges (Gotha, 1881-1882); Orlich, Gesch.
der schlesischen Kriege; Deroy, Beitrdge zur Gesch. des osterr.
Erbfolgekrieges (Munich, 1883); Crousse, La Guerre de la succession
dans les provinces belgiques (Paris, 1885); Duncker, Militarised, &c.,
Aktenstiicke zur Gesch. des I. schles. Krieges; Militar-Wochenblatt
supplements 1875, 1877, 1878, 1883, 1891, 1901, &c. (Berlin); Mit-
teilungen des k.k. Kriegsarchivs, from 1887 (Vienna); Baumgart,
Die Litteratur, &c., iiber Friedrich d. Gr. (Berlin, 1886); Fortescue,
History of the British Army, vol. ii. ; F. H. Skrine, Fontenoy and the
War of the Austrian Succession (London, 1906); Francis Parkman,
A Half-Century of Conflict (1892). (C. F. A.)

Naval Operations.

The naval operations of this war were languid and confused.
They are complicated by the fact that they were entangled with
the Spanish war, which broke out in 1739 in consequence of the
long disputes between England and Spain over their conflicting
claims in America. Until the closing years they were conducted
with small intelligence or spirit. The Spanish government was
nerveless, and sacrificed its true interest to the family ambition
of the king Philip V., who wished to establish his younger sons
as ruling princes in Italy. French administration was corrupt,
and the government was chiefly concerned in its political interests
in Germany. The British navy was at its lowest point of energy

44

AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION

and efficiency after the long administration of Sir Robert Walpole.
Therefore, although the war contained passages of vigour, it
was neither interesting nor decisive on the sea.

War on Spain was declared by Great Britain on the 23rd of
October 1739. It was universally believed that the Spanish
colonies would fall at once before attack. A plan was laid for
combined operations against them from east and west. One
force, military and naval, was to assault them from the West
Indies under Admiral Edward Vernon. Another, to be commanded
by Commodore George Anson, afterwards Lord Anson, was to
round Cape Horn and to fall upon the Pacific coast. Delays,
bad preparations, dockyard corruption, and the unpatriotic
squabbles of the naval and military officers concerned caused
the failure of a hopeful scheme. On the 2ist of November 1739
Admiral Vernon did indeed succeed in capturing the ill-defended
Spanish harbour of Porto Bello (in the present republic of
Panama) — a trifling success to boast of. But he did nothing to
prevent the Spanish convoys from reaching Europe. The Spanish
privateers cruised with destructive effect against British trade,
both in the West Indies and in European waters. When Vernon
had been joined by Sir Chaloner Ogle with naval reinforcements
and a strong body of troops, an attack was made on Cartagena
in what is now Colombia (March 9-April 24, 1741). The
delay had given the Spanish admiral, Don Bias de Leso, time
to prepare, and the siege failed with a dreadful loss of life to the
assailants. Want of success was largely due to the incompetence
of the military officers and the brutal insolence of the admiral.
The war in the West Indies, after two other unsuccessful attacks
had been made on Spanish territory, died down and did not
revive till 1748. The expedition under Anson sailed late, was
very ill provided, and less strong than had been intended. It
consisted of six ships and left England on the i8th of September
1740. Anson returned alone with his flagship the " Centurion "
on the isth of June 1744. The other vessels had either failed
to round the Horn or had been lost. But Anson had harried the
coast of Chile and Peru and had captured a Spanish galleon of
immense value near the Philippines. His cruise was a great
feat of resolution and endurance.

While Anson was pursuing his voyage round the world, Spain
was mainly intent on the Italian policy of the king. A squadron
was fitted out at Cadiz to convey troops to Italy. It was watched
by the British admiral Nicholas Haddock. When the blockading
squadron was forced off by want of provisions, the Spanish
admiral Don Jose Navarro put to sea. He was followed, but
when the British force came in sight of him Navarro had been
joined by a French squadron under M. de Court (December 1741).
The French admiral announced that he would support the
Spaniards if they were attacked and Haddock retired. France
and Great Britain were not yet openly at war, but both were
engaged in the struggle in Germany — Great Britain as the ally
of the queen of Hungary, Maria Theresa; France as the supporter
of the Bavarian claimant of the empire. Navarro and M. de
Court went on to Toulon, where they remained till February
1744. A British fleet watched them, under the command of
admiral Richard Lestock, till Sir Thomas Mathews was sent
out as commander-in-chief, and as minister to the court of Turin.
Partial manifestations of hostility between the French and
British took place in different seas, but avowed war did not
begin till the French government issued its declaration of the
30th of March, to which Great Britain replied on the 3ist. This
formality had been preceded by French preparations for the
invasion of England, and by a collision between the allies and
Mathews in the Mediterranean (.see TOULON, BATTLE OF). On
the i ith of February a most confused battle was fought, in which
the van and centre of the British fleet was engaged with the rear
and centre of the allies. Lestock, who was on the worst possible
terms with his superior, took no part in the action. He en-
deavoured to excuse himself by alleging that the orders of
Mathews were contradictory. Mathews, a puzzle-headed and
hot-tempered man, fought with spirit but in a disorderly way,
breaking the formation of his fleet, and showing no power of
direction. The mismanagement of the British fleet in the battle,

by arousing deep anger among the people, led to a drastic reform
of the British navy which bore its first fruits before the war ended.

The French invasion scheme was arranged in combination with
the Jacobite leaders, and soldiers were to be transported from
Dunkirk. But though the British government showed itself
wholly wanting in foresight, the plan broke down. In February
1744, a French fleet of twenty sail of the line entered the Channel
under Jacques Aymar, comte de Roquefeuil, before the British
force under admiral John Norris was ready to oppose him.
But the French force was ill equipped, the admiral was nervous,
his mind dwelt on all the misfortunes which might possibly
happen, and the weather was bad. M. de Roquefeuil came
up almost as far as the Downs, where he learnt that Sir John
Norris was at hand with twenty-five sail of the line, and thereupon
precipitately retreated. The military expedition prepared at
Dunkirk to cross under cover of Roquefeuil's fleet naturally
did not start. The utter weakness of the French at sea, due to
long neglect of the fleet and the bankrupt state of the treasury,
was shown during the Jacobite rising of 1745, when France made
no attempt to profit by the distress of the British government.
The Dutch having by this time joined Great Britain, made a
serious addition to the naval power opposed to France, though
Holland was compelled by the necessity for maintaining an army
in Flanders to play a very subordinate part at sea. Not being
stimulated by formidable attack, and having immediate interests
both at home and in Germany, the British government was slow
to make use of its latest naval strength. Spain, which could do
nothing of an offensive character, was almost neglected. During
1745 the New England expedition which took Louisburg (April
30- June 16) was covered by a British naval force, but the opera-
tions were in a general way sporadic, subordinated to the supply
of convoy, or to unimportant particular ends. In the East
Indies, Mahe de la Bourdonnais made a vigorous use of a small
squadron to which no effectual resistance was offered by the
British naval forces. He captured Madras (July 24-September
9, 1746), a set-off for Louisburg, for which it was exchanged at
the close of the war. In the same year a British combined naval
and military expedition to the coast of France — the first of a long
series of similar ventures which in the end were derided as
" breaking windows with guineas " — was carried out during
August and October. The aim was the capture of the French
East India company's dockyard at L'Orient, but it was not
attained.

From 1747 till the close of the war in October 1748 the naval
policy of the British government, without reaching a high level,
was yet more energ||jc and coherent. A closer watch was kept
on the French coast, and effectual means were taken to intercept
communication between France and her American possessions.
In the spring information was obtained that an important convoy
for the East and West Indies was to sail from L'Orient. In
the previous year the British government had allowed a French
expedition under M. d'Anville to fail mainly by its own weakness.
In 1747 a more creditable line was taken. An overwhelming
force was employed under the command of Anson to intercept
the convoy in the Channel. It was met, crushed and captured,
or driven back, on the 3rd of May. On the i4th of October
another French convoy, protected by a strong squadron, was
intercepted by a well-appointed and well-directed squadron of
superior numbers — the squadrons were respectively eight French
and fourteen British — in the Bay of Biscay. The French
admiral Desherbiers de 1'Etenduere made a very gallant resist-
ance, and the fine quality of his ships enabled him to counteract
to some extent the superior numbers of Sir Edward Hawke,
the British admiral. While the war-ships were engaged, the
merchant vessels, with the small protection which Desherbiers
could spare them, continued on their way to the West Indies.
Most of them were, however, intercepted and captured in those
waters. This disaster convinced the French government of
its helplessness at sea, and it made no further effort.

The last naval operations took place in the West Indies,
where the Spaniards, who had for a time been treated as a negli-
gible quantity, were attacked on the coast of Cuba by a British

AUTHENTIC— AUTOGRAPHS

45

squadron under Sir Charles Knowles. They had a naval force
under Admiral Regio at Havana. Each side was at once
anxious to cover its own trade, and to intercept that of the other.
Capture was rendered particularly desirable to the British by
the fact that the Spanish homeward-bound convoy would be
laden with the bullion sent from the American mines. In the
course of the movement of each to protect its trade, the two
squadrons met on the ist of October 1 748 in the Bahama Channel.
The action was indecisive when compared with the successes
of British fleets in later days, but the advantage lay with Sir
Charles Knowles. He was prevented from following it up by the
speedy receipt of the news that peace had been made in Europe
by the powers, who were all in various degrees exhausted. That
it was arranged on the terms of a mutual restoration of conquests
shows that none of the combatants could claim to have estab-
lished a final superiority. The conquests, of the French in the
Bay of Bengal, and their military successes in Flanders, enabled
them to treat on equal terms, and nothing had been taken from
Spain.

The war was remarkable for the prominence of privateering
on both sides. It was carried on by the Spaniards in the West
Indies with great success, and actively at home. The French
were no less active in all seas. Mahe de la Bourdonnais's
attack on Madras partook largely of the nature of a privateering
venture. The British retaliated with vigour. The total number
of captures by French and Spanish corsairs was in all probability
larger than the list of British — partly for the reason given by
Voltaire, namely, that more British merchants were taken because
there were many more British merchant ships to take, but partly
also because the British government had not yet begun to enforce
the use of convoy so strictly as it did in later times.

See Beatson's Naval and Military Memoirs (London, 180,1) ;
La Marine militaire de la France sous le regne de Louis XV, by
G. Lacbur-Gayet (Paris, 1902); The Royal Navy, by Sir W. L.
Clowes and others (London, 1891, &c.). (D. H.)

AUTHENTIC (from Gr. avOivn]*, one who does a thing
himself), genuine, as opposed to counterfeit, true or original.
In music it is one of the terms used for the ecclesiastical modes.
The title of A uthentics was also used for Justinian's Novells.

AUTOCEPH ALDUS (from Gr. airis, self, and Ke<£aXifr, head),
of independent headship, a term used of certain ecclesiastical
functionaries and organizations.

AUTOCHTHONES (Gr. auroj, and \Biav, earth, i.e. people sprung
from earth itself; Lat. terrigenae; see also under ABORIGINES),
the original inhabitants of a country as opposed to settlers, and
those of their descendants who kept themselves free from an
admixture of foreign peoples. The practice in ancient Greece
of describing legendary heroes and men of ancient lineage as
" earthborn " greatly strengthened the doctrine of autochthony;
for instance, the Athenians wore golden grasshoppers in their
hair in token that they were born from the soil and had always
lived in Attica (Thucydides i. 6; Plato, Menexenus, 245). In
Thebes, the race of Sparti were believed to have sprung from
a field sown with dragons' teeth. The Phrygian Corybantes
had been forced out of the hill-side like trees by Rhea, the great
mother, and hence were called 5tvdpo<t>vtl$. It is clear from
Aeschylus (Prometheus, 447) that primitive men were supposed
to have at first lived like animals in caves and woods, till by
the help of the gods and heroes they were raised to a stage
of civilization.

AUTOCLAVE, a strong closed vessel of metal in which liquids
can be heated above their boiling points under pressure. Ety-
mologically the word indicates a self-closing vessel (airrix, self, and
clavis, key, or davus, nail), in which the tightness of the joints
is maintained by the internal pressure, but this characteristic
is frequently wanting in the actual apparatus to which the name
is applied. The prototype of the autoclave was the digester of
Denis Papin, invented in 1681, which is still used in cooking,
but the appliance finds a much wider range of employment in
chemical industry, where it is utilized in various forms in the
manufacture of candles, coal-tar colours, &c. Frequently an
agitator, passing through a stuffing-box, is fitted so that the

contents may be stirred, and renewable linings are provided in
cases where the substances under treatment exert a corrosive
action on metal.

AUTOCRACY (Gr. avTOKpartia, absolute power), a term
applied to that form of government which is absolute or irre-
sponsible, and vested in one single person. It is a type of
government usually found amongst eastern peoples; amongst
more civilized nations the only example is that of Russia, where
the sovereign assumes as a title " the autocrat of all the
Russias."

AUTO-DA-FE, more correctly AUTO-DE-FE (act of faith), the
name of the ceremony during the course of which the sentences
of the Spanish inquisition were read and executed. The auto-
da-fe was almost identical with the sermo generalis of the medieval
inquisition. It never took place on a feast day of the church,
but on some famous anniversary: the accession of a Spanish
monarch, his marriage, the birth of an infant, &c. It was public:
the king, the royal family, the grand councils of the kingdom,
the court and the people being present. The ceremony comprised
a procession in which the members of the Holy Office, with its
familiars and agents, the condemned persons and the penitents
took part; a solemn mass; an oath of obedience to the inquisi-
tion, taken by the king and all the lay functionaries; a sermon
by the Grand Inquisitor; and the reading of the sentences,
either of condemnation or acquittal, delivered by the Holy
Office. The handing over of impenitent persons, and those who
had relapsed, to the secular power, and their punishment, did
not usually take place on the occasion of an auto-da-f6, properly
so called. Sometimes those who were condemned to the flames
were burned on the night following the ceremony. The first
great auto-da-fe's were celebrated when Thomas de Torquemada
was at the head of the Spanish inquisition (Seville 1482, Toledo
1486, &c.). The last, subsequent to the time of Charles III.,
were held in secret; moreover, they dealt with only a very small
number of sentences, of which hardly any were capital. The
isolated cases of the torturing of a revolutionary priest in Mexico
in 1816, and of a relapsed Jew and of a Quaker in Spain during
1826, cannot really be considered as auto-da-fes. (P. A.)

AUTOGAMY (from Gr. ainfo, self, and ya/da, marriage),
a botanical term for self-fertilization. (See ANGIOSPERMS.)

AUTOGENY, AUTOGENOUS (Gr. ainoye^), spontaneous
generation, self-produced. Haeckel distinguished autogeny and
plltsmogeny, applying the former term when the formative fluid
in which the first living matter was supposed to arise was in-
organic and the latter when it was organic, i.e. contained the
requisite fundamental substances dissolved in the form of
complicated and fluid combinations of carbon. In " autogenous
soldering " two pieces of metal are united by the melting of the
opposing surfaces, without the use of a separate fusible alloy
or solder as a cementing material.

AUTOGRAPHS. Autograph (Gr. O.VT(K, self, yp&<j>tu>, to
write) is a term applied by common usage either to a document
signed by the person from whom it emanates, or to one written
entirely by the hand of such person (which, however, is also
more technically described as holograph, from 8Xos, entire,
yp&Qtiv, to write), or simply to an independent signature.

The existence of autographs must necessarily have been
coeval with the invention of letters. Documents in the hand-
writing of their composers may possibly exist among the early
papyri of Egypt and the clay tablets of Babylonia and Assyria,
and among the early examples of writing in the East. But the
oriental practice of employing professional scribes in writing
the body of documents and of using seals for the purpose of
" signing " (the " signum " originally meaning the impression
of the seal) almost precludes the idea. When we are told ( i Kings
xxi. 8) that Jezebel wrote letters in Ahab's name and sealed
them with his seal, we are, of course, to understand that the
letters were written by the professional scribes and that
the impression of the king's seal was the authentication,
equivalent to the signature of western nations; and again,
when King Darius " signed " the writing and the decree (Dan.
vi. 9), he did so with his seal. To find documents which we can

46

AUTOGRAPHS

recognize with certainty to be autographs, we must descend
to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods of Egyptian history, which
are represented by an abundance of papyrus documents of all
kinds, chiefly in Greek. Among them are not a few original
letters and personal documents, in which we may see the hand-
writing of many lettered and unlettered individuals who lived
during the 3rd century B.C. and in succeeding times, and which
prove how very widespread was the practice of writing in those
days. We owe it to the dry and even atmosphere of Egypt that
these written documents have been preserved in such numbers.
On the other hand, in Italy and Greece ancient writings have
perished, save the few charred papyrus rolls and waxen tablets
which have been recovered from the ruins of Herculaneum and
Pompeii. These tablets, however, have a special value, for many
of them contain autograph signatures of principals and witnesses
to legal deeds to which they were attached, together with im-
pressions of seals, in compliance with the Roman law which
required the actual subscriptions, or attested marks, of the
persons concerned.

But, when we now speak of autographs and autograph collec-
tions, we use such terms in a restricted sense and imply documents
or signatures written by persons of some degree of eminence or
notoriety in the various ranks and professions of life; and
naturally the only early autographs in this sense which could
be expected to survive are the subscriptions and signatures of
royal personages and great officials attached to important public
deeds, which from their nature have been more jealously cared
for than mere private documents.

Following the Roman practice, subscriptions and signatures
were required in legal documents in the early centuries of our
era. Hence we find them in the few Latin deeds on papyrus
which have come to light in Egypt; we find them on the well-
known Dacian waxen tablets of the 2nd century; and we find
them in the series of papyrus deeds from Ravenna and other
places in Italy between the sth and loth centuries. The same
practice obtained in the Prankish empire. The Merovingian
kings, or at least those of them who knew how to write, sub-
scribed their diplomas and great charters with their own hands;
and their great officers of state, chancellors and others, counter-
signed in autograph. The unlettered Merovingian kings made
use of monograms composed of the letters of their names; and,
curiously, the illiterate monogram was destined to supersede
the literate subscriptions. For the monogram was adopted by
Charlemagne and his successors as a recognized symbol of their
subscription. It was their signum manuale, their sign manual.
In courtly imitation of the royal practice, monograms and other
marks were adopted by official personages, even though they
could write. The notarial marks of modern times are a survival
of the practice. By the illiterate other signs, besides the mono-
gram, came to be employed, such as the cross, &c., as signs
manual. The monogram was used by French monarchs from
the reign of Charlemagne to that of Philip the Fair, who died in
1314. It is very doubtful, however, whether in any instance this
sign manual was actually traced by the monarch's own hand.
At the most, the earlier sovereigns appear to have drawn one
or two strokes in their monograms, which, so far, may be called
their autographs. But in the later period not even this was
done; the monogram was entirely the work of the scribe.
(See DIPLOMATIC.)

The employment of marks or signs manual went out of general
use after the 1 2th century, in the course of which the affixing
or appending of seals became the common method of executing
deeds. But, as education became more general and the practice
of writing more widely diffused, the usage grew up in the course
of the i4th century of signing the name-signature as well as of
affixing the seal; and by the isth century it had become estab-
lished, and it remains to the present time. Thus the signum
manuale had disappeared, except among notaries; but the term
survived, and by a natural process it was transferred to the
signature. In the present day it is used to designate the " sign
manual " or autograph signature of the sovereign.

The Anglo-Saxon kings of England did not sign their charters,

their names being invariably written by the official scribes.
After the Norman conquest, the sign manual, usually a cross,
which sometimes accompanied the name of the sovereign, may
in some instances be autograph; but no royal signature is to be
found earlier than the reign of Richard II. Of the signatures
of this king there are two examples, of the years 1386 and 1389,
in the Public Record Office; and there is one, of 1397, in the
British Museum. Of his father, the Black Prince, there is in the
Record Office a motto-signature, De par Homont (high courage) ,
Ich dene, subscribed to a writ of privy seal of 1370. The kings
of the Lancastrian line were apparently ready writers. Of the
handwriting of both Henry IV. and Henry V. there are specimens
both in the Record Office and in the British Museum. But by
their time writing had become an ordinary accomplishment.

Apart from the autographs of sovereigns, those of famous
men of the early middle ages can hardly be said to exist, or, if they
do exist, they are difficult to identify. For example, there is
a charter at Canterbury bearing the statement that it was written
by Dunstan; but, as there is a duplicate in the British Museum
with the same statement, it is probable that both the one and
the other are copies. The autograph MSS. of the chronicles of
Ordericus Vitalis, of Robert de Monte, and of Sigebert of
Gembloux are in existence; and among the Cottonian MSS.
there are undoubtedly autograph writings of Matthew of Paris,
the English chronicler of Henry III.'s reign. There are certain
documents in the British Museum in the hand of William of
Wykeham; and among French archives there are autograph
writings of the historian Joinville. These are a few instances.
When we come to such a collection as the famous Paston Letters,
the correspondence of the Norfolk family of Paston of the isth
century, we find therein numerous autographs of historical
personages of the time.

From the i6th century onward, we enter the period of modern
history, and autograph documents of all kinds become plentiful.
And yet in the midst of this plenty, by a perverse fate, there is
in certain instances a remarkable dearth. The instance of
Shakespeare is the most famous. But for three signatures to
the three sheets of his will, and two signatures to the conveyances
of property in Blackfriars, we should be without a vestige of
his handwriting. For certain other signatures, professing to
be his, inscribed in books, may be dismissed as imitations.
Such forgeries come up from time to time, as might be expected,
and are placed upon the market. The Shakespearean forgeries,
however, of W. H. Ireland were perpetrated rather with a
literary intent than as an autographic venture.

Had autograph collecting been the fashion in Shakespeare's
days, we should not have had to deplore the loss of his and of
other great! writers' autographs. But the taste had not then
come into vogue, at least not in England. The series of auto-
graph documents which were gathered in such a library as that
of Sir Robert Cotton, now in the British Museum, found their
way thither on account of their literary or historic interest, and
not merely as specimens of the handwriting of distinguished
men. Such a series also as th&t formed by Philippe de Bethune,
Comte de Selles et Charost, and his son, in the reign of Louis XIV.,
consisting for the most part of original letters and papers, now
in the Bibliotheque Nationale, might have been regarded as the
result of autograph collecting did we not know that it. was
brought together for historical purposes. It was in Germany
and the Low Countries that the practice appears to have origi-
nated, chiefly among students and other members of the
universities, of collecting autograph inscriptions and signatures
of one's friends in albums, alba amicorum, little oblong pocket
volumes of which a considerable number have survived, a very
fair collection being in the British Museum. The earliest
album in the latter series is the Egerton MS. 1178, beginning
with an entry of the year 1554. Once the taste was established,
the collecting of autographs of living persons was naturally
extended to those of former times; and many collections,
famous in their day, have been formed, but in most instances
only to be dispersed again as the owners tired of their fancy or
as their heirs failed to inherit their tastes along with their

AUTOLYCUS— AUTOMATIC WRITING

47

possessions. The most celebrated collection formed in England
in recent years is that of the late Mr Alfred Morrison, which still
remains intact, and which is well known by means of the
sumptuous catalogue, with its many facsimiles, compiled by
the owner.

The rivalry of collectors and the high prices which rare or
favourite autographs realize have naturally given encouragement
to the forger. False letters of popular heroes and of popular
authors, of Nelson, of Burns, of Thackeray, and of others,
appear from time to time in the market: in some instances
clever imitations, but more generally too palpably spurious to
deceive any one with experience. Like the Shakespearean
forgeries of Ireland, referred to above, the forgeries of Chatterton
were literary inventions; and both were poor performances.
One of the cleverest frauds of this nature in modern times was
the fabrication, in the middle of the ipth century, of a series
of letters of Byron and Shelley, with postmarks and seals com-
plete, which were even published as bona fide documents (Brit.
Mus., Add. MS. 19,377).

There are many published collections of facsimiles of autographs
of different nations. Among those published in England the follow-
ing may be named: — British Autography, by J. Thane (1788-1793,
with supplement by Daniell, 1854) ; Autographs of Royal, Noble,
Learned and Remarkable Personages in English History, by J. G.
Nichols (1829); Facsimiles of Original Documents of Eminent
Literary Characters, by C. J. Smith (1852); Autographs of the Kings
and Queens and Eminent Men of Great Britain, by J. Netherclift
(1835) ; One Hundred Characteristic Autograph Letters, by J. Nether-
clift and Son (1849); The Autograph Miscellany, by F. Netherclift
(1855); The Autograph Souvenir, by F. G. Netherclift and R. Sims
(1865); The Autographic Mirror (1864-1866); The Handbook of
Autographs, by F. G. Netherclift (1862); The Autograph Album,
by L. B. Phillips (1866); Facsimiles of Autographs (British Museum
publication), five series (1896-1900). Facsimiles of autographs also
appear in the official publications, Facsimiles of National MSS.,
from William the Conqueror to Queen Anne (Master of the Rolls)
1865-1868; Facsimiles of National MSS. of Scotland (Lord Clerk
Register), 1867-1871; and Facsimiles of National MSS. of Ireland
(Public Record Office, Ireland), 1874-1884. (E. M. T.)

AUTOLYCUS, in Greek mythology, the son of Hermes and
father of Anticleia, mother of Odysseus. He lived at the foot
of Mount Parnassus, and was famous as a thief and swindler. On
one occasion he met his match. Sisyphus, who had lost some
cattle, suspected Autolycus of being the thief, but was unable
to bring it home to him, since he possessed the power of changing
everything that was touched by his hands. Sisyphus accordingly
burnt his name into the hoofs of his cattle, and, during a visit
to Autolycus, recognized his property. It is said that on this
occasion Sisyphus seduced Autolycus's daughter Anticleia, and
that Odysseus was really the son of Sisyphus, not of Laertes,
whom Anticleia afterwards married. The object of the story
is to establish the close connexion between Hermes, the god of
theft and cunning, and the three persons — Sisyphus, Odysseus,
Autolycus — who are the incarnate representations of these
practices. Autolycus is also said to have instructed Heracles
in the art of wrestling, and to have taken part in the Argonautic
expedition.

Iliad, x. 267; Odyssey, xix. 395; Ovid, Metam. xi. 313; Apollo-
dorus i. 9; Hyginus, Fab. 201.

AUTOLYCUS OF PITANE, Greek mathematician and astro-
nomer, probably nourished in the second half of the 4th century
B.C., since he is said to have instructed Arcesilaus. His extant
works consist of two treatises; the one, Ilepi Kivovnevris a<baipas,
contains some simple propositions on the motion of the sphere,
the other, lifpl tmroXlav ml dvo-fuv, in two books, discusses
the rising and setting of the fixed stars. The former treatise is
historically interesting for the light it throws on the development
which the geometry of the sphere had already reached even
before Autolycus and Euclid (see THEODOSIUS OF TRIPOLIS).

There are several Latin versions of Autolycus, a French translation
by Forcadel (1572), and an admirable edition of the Greek text with
Latin translation by F. Hultsch (Leipzig, 1885).

AUTOMATIC WRITING, the name given by students of
psychical research to writing performed without the volition
of the agent. The writing may also take place without any
consciousness of the words written ; but some automatists are

aware of the word which they are actually writing, and perhaps
of two or three words on either side, though there is rarely any
clear perception of the meaning of the whole. Automatic writing
may take place when the agent is in a state of trance, spontaneous
or induced, in hystero-epilepsy or other morbid states; or in a
condition not distinguishable from normal wakefulness. Auto-
matic writing has played an important part in the history of
modern spiritualism. The phenomenon first appeared on a large
scale in the early days (c. 1850-1860) of the movement in America.
Numerous writings are reported at that period, many of con-
siderable length, which purported for the most part to have been
produced under spirit guidance. Some of these were written in
" unknown tongues." Of those which were published the most
notable are Andrew J. Davis's Great Harmonia, Charles Linton's
The Healing of the Nations, and J. Murray Spear's Messages
from the Spirit Life.

In England also the early spiritualist newspapers were filled
with " inspirational " writing, — Pages of the Paraclete, &c. The
most notable series of English automatic writings are the Spirit
Teachings of the Rev. W. Stainton Moses. The phenomenon, of
course, lends itself to deception, but there seems no reason to
doubt that in the great majority of the cases recorded the writing
was in reality produced without deliberate volition. In the
earlier years of the spiritualist movement, a " planchette," a
little heart-shaped board running on wheels, was employed to
facilitate the process of writing.

Of late years, whilst the theory of external inspiration as the
cause of the phenomenon has been generally discredited, auto-
matic writing has been largely employed as a method of experi-
mentally investigating subconscious mental processes. Knowledge
which had lapsed from the primary consciousness is frequently
revealed by this means; e.g. forgotten fragments of poetry or
foreign languages are occasionally given. An experimental
parallel to this reproduction of forgotten knowledge was devised
by Edmund Gurney. [He showed that information communicated
to a subject in the hypnotic trance could be subsequently
reproduced through the handwriting, whilst the attention of the
subject was fully employed in conversing or reading aloud; or
an arithmetical problem which had been set during the trance
could be worked out under similar conditions without the apparent
consciousness of the subject.

Automatic writing for the most part, no doubt, brings to the
surface only the debris of lapsed memories and half-formed
impressions which have never reached the focus of consciousness
— the stuff that dreams are made of. But there are indications
in some cases of something more than this. In some spontaneous
instances the writing produces anagrams, puns, nonsense verses
and occasional blasphemies or obscenities; and otherwise
exhibits characteristics markedly divergent from those of the
normal consciousness. In the well-known case recorded by Th.
Flournoy (Des Indes a la planete Mars) the automatist produced
writing in an unknown character, which purported to be the
Martian language. The writing generally resembles the ordinary
handwriting of the agent, but there are sometimes marked
differences, and the same automatist may employ two or three
distinct handwritings. Occasionally imitations are produced of
the handwriting of other persons, living or dead. Not infrequently
the writing is reversed, so that it can be read only in a looking-
glass (Spiegelschr iff) ; the ability to produce such writing is
often associated with the liability to spontaneous somnambulism.
The hand and arm are often insensible in the act of writing.
There are some cases on record in which the automatist has seemed
to guide his hand not by sight, but by some special extension of
the muscular sense (Carpenter, Mental Physiology, § 128; W.
James, Proceedings American S.P.R. p. 554).

Automatic writing frequently exhibits indications of telepathy.
The most remarkable series of automatic writings recorded in this
connexion are those executed by the American medium, Mrs
Piper, in a state of trance ( Proceedings S. P. R.). These writings
appear to exhibit remarkable telepathic powers, and are thought
by some to indicate communication with the spirits of the
dead.

AUTOMATISM— AUTONOMY

The opportunities afforded by automatic writing for communi-
cating with subconscious strata of the personality have been
made use of by Pierre Janet and others in cases of hystero-
epilepsy, and other forms of dissociation of consciousness.
A patient in an attack of hysterical convulsions, to whom oral
appeals are made in vain, can sometimes be induced to answer in
writing questions addressed to the hand, and thus to reveal the
secret of the malady or to accept therapeutic suggestions.

See Edmonds and Dexter, Spiritualism (New York, 1853); Epes
Sargent, Planchette, the Despair of Science (Boston, U.S.A., 1869);
Mrs de Morgan, From Matter to Spirit (London, 1863) ; W. Stainton
Moses, Spint Teachings (London, 1883) ; Proceedings S.P R. passim;
Th. Flournoy, Des Indes d la planete Mars (Geneva, 1900) ; F. Pod-
more, Modern Spiritualism (London, 1902); F. W. H. Myers,
Human Personality (London, 1903); Pierre Janet, L'Automalisme
psychologique (2nd ed.( Paris, 1894) ; Morton Prince, The Dissocia-
tion of a Personality (London, 1906). (F. P.)

AUTOMATISM. In philosophical terminology this word is
used in two main senses: (i) in ethics, for the view that man
is not responsible for his actions, which have, therefore, no moral
value; (2) in psychology, for all actions which are not the result
of conation or conscious endeavour. Certain actions being
admittedly automatic, Descartes maintained that, in regard of
the lower animals, all action is purely mechanical. The same
theory has since been applied to man, with this difference that,
accompanying the mechanical phenomena of action, and entirely
disconnected with it, are the phenomena of consciousness. Thus
certain physical changes in the brain result in a given action;
the concomitant mental desire or volition is in no sense causally
connected with, or prior to, the physical change. This theory,
which has been maintained by T. Huxley (Science atid Culture)
and Shadworth Hodgson (Metaphysic of Experience and Theory
of Practice) , must be distinguished from that of the psychophysical
parallelism, or the " double aspect theory " according to which
both the mental state and the physical phenomena result from a
so-called " mind stuff," or single substance, the material or cause
of both.

Automatic acts are of two main kinds. Where the action
goes on while the attention is focused on entirely different
subjects (e.g. in cycling), it is purely automatic. On the other
hand, if the attention is fixed on the end or on any particular
part of a given action, and the other component parts of the action
are performed unconsciously, the automatism may be called
relative.

See G. F. Stout, Anal. Psych, i. 258 foil.; Wm. James, Princ.
of Psych, i. chap. 5; also the articles PSYCHOLOGY, SUGGESTION,

Sensory Automatism is the term given by students of psychical
research to a centrally initiated hallucination. Such hallucina-
tions are commonly provoked by crystal-gazing (q.v.), but
auditory hallucinations may be caused by the use of a shell
(shell-hearing), and the other senses are occasionally affected.

Motor Automatism, on the other hand, is a non-reflex move-
ment of a voluntary muscle, executed in the waking state but not
controlled by the ordinary waking consciousness. Phenomena
of this kind play a large part in primitive ceremonies of divina-
tion (q.v.) and in our own day furnish much of the material of
Psychical Research. At the lowest level we have vague move-
ments of large groups of muscles, as in " bier-divination," where
the murderer or his residence is inferred from the actions of the
bearers; of a similar character but combined with more specialized
action are many kinds of witch seeking. These more specialized
actions are most typically seen in the Divining Rod (q.v.; see
also TABLE-TURNING), which indicates the presence of water
and is used among the uncivilized to trace criminals. At a
higher stage still we have the delicate movements necessary for
Automatic Writing (q.v.) or Drawing. A parallel case to
Automatic Writing is the action of the speech centres, resulting
in the production of all kinds of utterances from trance speeches
in the ordinary language of the speaker to mere unintelligible
babblings. An interesting form of speech automatism is known
as Glossolalia; in the typical case of Helene Smith, Th. Flournoy
has shown that these utterances may reach a higher plane and

form a real language, which is, however, based on one already

known to the speaker.

See Man (1904), No. 68; Folklore, xiii. 134; Myers in Proc.
S.P.R. ix. 26, xii. 277, xv. 403 ; Flournoy, Des Indes a la planete
Mars and in Arch, de Psychologic; Myers, Human Personality.

(N. W. T.)

AUTOMATON (from aiiTOS,self , and fiaw, to seize) , a self -moving
machine, or one in which the principle of motion is contained
within the mechanism itself. According to this description,
clocks, watches and all machines of a similar kind, are automata,
but the word is generally applied to contrivances which simulate
for a time the motions of animal life. If the human figure and
actions be represented, the automaton has sometimes been called
specially an androides. We have very early notices of the con-
struction of automata, e.g. the tripods of Vulcan, and the moving
figures of Daedalus. In 400 B.C., Archytas of Tarentum is said
to have made a wooden pigeon that could fly, and during the
middle ages numerous instances of the construction of automata
are recorded. Regiomontanus is said to have made of iron a fly,
which would flutter round the room and return to his hand,
and also an eagle, which flew before the emperor Maximilian
when he was entering Nuremberg. Roger Bacon is said to have
forged a brazen head which spoke, and Albertus Magnus to have
had an androides, which acted as doorkeeper, and was broken
to pieces by Aquinas. Of these, as of some later instances, e.g.
the figure constructed by Descartes and the automata exhibited
by Dr Camus, not much is accurately known. But in the
i8th century, Jacques de Vaucanson, the celebrated mechanician,
exhibited three admirable figures, — the flute-player, the tam-
bourine-player, and the duck, which was capable of eating,
drinking, and imitating exactly the natural voice of that fowl.
The means by which these results had been produced were
clearly seen, and a great impulse was given to the construction
of similar figures. Knauss exhibited at Vienna an automaton
which wrote; a father and son named Droz constructed several
ingenious mechanical figures which wrote and played music;
Frederick Kaufmann and Leonard Maelzel made automatic
trumpeters who could play several marches. The Swiss have
always been celebrated for their mechanical ingenuity, and they
construct most of the curious toys, such as flying and singing
birds, which are frequently met with in industrial exhibitions.
The greatest difficulty has generally been experienced in devising
any mechanism which shall successfully simulate the human
voice (not to be compared with the gramophone, which repro-
duces mechanically a real voice). No attempt has been
thoroughly successful, though many have been made. A figure
exhibited by Fabermann of Vienna remains the best. Kempelen's
famous chess-player for many years astonished and puzzled
Europe. This figure, however, was no true automaton, although
the mechanical contrivances for concealing the real performer
and giving effect to his desired movements were exceedingly
ingenious. J. N. Maskelyne, in more recent times (1875-1880),
has been prominent in exhibiting his automata, Psycho (who
played cards) and Zoe (who drew pictures), at the Egyptian
Hall, London, but the secret of these contrivances was well kept.
(See CONJURING.)

AUTOMORPHISM (from Gr. afa-oj, self, and juoptfnj, form), the
conception and interpretation of other people's habits and ideas
on the analogy of one's own.

AUTONOMY (Gr. a6r6s, self, and v6/ws, law), in general,
freedom from external restraint, self-government. The term is
usually coupled with a qualifying adjective. Thus, political
autonomy is self-government in its widest sense, independence
of all control from without. Local autonomy is a freedom of
self-government within a sphere marked out by some superior
authority; e.g. municipal corporations in England have their
administrative powers marked out for them by acts of parliament,
and in so far as they govern themselves within these limits
exercise local autonomy. Administrative or constitutional
autonomy, such as exists in the British colonies, implies an
extent of self-government which falls short only of complete
independence. The term is used loosely even in the case of e.g.
religious bodies, individual churches and other communities

AUTOPSY— AUVERGNE

49

which enjoy a measure of self-government in certain specified
respects.

In philosophy, the term (with its antithesis " heteronomy ")
was applied by Kant to that aspect of the rational will in which,
qua rational, it is a law to itself, independently alike of any
external authority, of the results of experience and of the im-
pulses of pleasure and pain. In the sphere of morals, the ultimate
and only authority which the mind can recognize is the law
which emerges from the pure moral consciousness. This is the
only sense in which moral freedom can be understood. (See
ETHICS; KANT.) Though the term "autonomy" in its fullest
sense implies entire freedom from causal necessity, it can also
be used even in determinist theories for relative independence
of particular conditions, theological or conventional.

AUTOPSY (Gr. avrfc, self, and 3^«, sight, investigation),
a personal examination, specifically a post-mortem (" after
death ") examination of a dead body, to ascertain the cause of
death, &c. The term " necropsy " (Gr. v€Kp6i, corpse) is
sometimes used in this sense. (See CORONER and MEDICAL
JURISPRUDENCE.)

AUTRAN, JOSEPH (1813-1877), French poet, was born at
Marseilles on the zoth of June 1813. In 1832 he addressed an
ode to Lamartine, who was then at Marseilles on his way to the
East. The elder poet persuaded the young man's father to
allow him to follow his poetic bent, and Autran remained from
that time a faithful disciple of Lamartine. His best known
work is La Mer (1835), remodelled in 1852 as Les Poemes de la
mer. Ludibria ventis (1838) followed, and the success of these
two volumes gained for Autran the librarianship of his native
town. His other most important work is his Vie rurale (1856),
a series of pictures of peasant life. The Algerian campaigns
inspired him with verses in honour of the common soldier.
Milianah (1842) describes the heroic defence of that town, and
in the same vein is his Laboureitrs et soldats (1854). Among his
other works are the Paroles de Salomon (1868), £pltres rustiques
(1861), Sonnets capricieux, and a tragedy played with great
success at the Odeon in 1848, La Fille d'Eschyle. A definitive
edition of his works was brought out between 1875 and 1881.
He became a member of the French Academy in 1868, and died
at Marseilles on the 6th of March 1877.

AUTUN, a town of east-central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Sadne-et-Loire, 62 m. S.W. of Dijon
on the Paris-Lyon railway to Nevers. Pop. (1906) 11,927.
Autun is pleasantly situated on the slope of a hill at the foot of
which runs the Arroux. Its former greatness is attested by
many Roman remains, the chief of which are two well-preserved
stone gateways, the Porte d' Arroux and the Porte St Andre,
both pierced with four archways and surmounted by arcades.
There are also remains of the old ramparts and aqueducts, of a
square tower called the Temple of Janus, of a theatre and of an
amphitheatre. A pyramid in the neighbouring village of
Couhard was probably a sepulchral monument. The chapel
of St Nicolas (i2th century) contains many of the remains
discovered at Autun. The cathedral of St Lazare, once the
chapel attached to the residence of the dukes of Burgundy, is
in the highest part of the town. It belongs mainly to the I2th
century, but the Gothic central tower and the chapels were
added in the i$th century by Nicolas Rolin, chancellor of
Burgundy, born at Autun. The chief artistic features of the
church are the group of the Last Judgment sculptured on the
tympanum above the west door, and the painting by Ingres
representing the martyrdom of St Symphorien, which took
place at Autun in 179. In the cathedral square stands the
fountain of St Lazare, a work of the Renaissance. The h6tel
Rolin, a house of the isth century, contains the collections of
the " Aeduan literary and scientific society." The h6tel de
ville, containing a museum of paintings, the law-court and the
theatre are modern buildings. Autun is the seat of a bishopric,
of tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and has an
ecclesiastical seminary, a communal college and a cavalry school.
Among the industries of the town are the extraction of oil from
the bituminous schist obtained in the neighbourhood, leather

manufacture, metal-founding, marble-working, and the manu-
facture of machinery and furniture. Autun is the commercial
centre for a large part of the Morvan, and has considerable
trade in timber and cattle.

Autun (Augustodunum) succeeded Bibracte as capital of the
Aedui when Gaul was reorganized by Augustus. Under the
Romans, it was a flourishing town, covering double its present
extent and renowned for its schools of rhetoric. In the succeed-
ing centuries its prosperity drew upon it the attacks of the
barbarians, the Saracens and the Normans. The counts of
Autun in 880 became dukes of Burgundy, and the town was
the residence of the latter till 1276. It was ravaged by the
English in 1379, and, in 1591, owing to its support of the League,
had to sustain a siege conducted by Marshal Jean d'Aumont,
general of Henry IV.

See H. de Fontenay, Autun et ses monuments (Autun, 1889).

AUTUNITE, or CALCO-URANITE, a mineral which is one of the
" uranium micas," differing from the more commonly occurring
torbernite (q.v.) or cupro-uranite in containing calcium in place of
copper. It is a hydrous uranium and calcium phosphate,
Ca (UOi)i(PO4)2+8(or 12)H2O. Though closely resembling the
tetragonal torbernite in form, it crystallizes in the orthorhombic
system and is optically biaxial. The crystals have the shape
of thin plates with very nearly square outline (89° 17' instead
of 90°). An important character is the perfect micaceous
cleavage parallel to the basal plane, on which plane the lustre
is pearly. The colour is sulphur-yellow, and this enables the
mineral to be distinguished at a glance from the emerald-green
torbernite. Hardness 2-2$; specific gravity 3-05-3- 19. Autunite
is usually found with pitchblende and other uranium minerals,
or with ores of silver, tin and iron; it sometimes coats
joint-planes in gneiss and pegmatite. Falkenstein in Saxony,
St Symphorien near Autun (hence the name of the species),
and St Day in Cornwall are well-known localities for this
mineral. (L. J. S.)

AUVERGNE, formerly a province of France, corresponding
to the departments of Cantal and Puy-de-D6me, with the
arrondissement of Brioude in Haute-Loire. It contains many
mountains volcanic in origin (Plomb du Cantal, Puy de D6me,
Mont Dore), fertile valleys such as that of Limagne, vast pasture-
lands, and numerous medicinal springs. Up to the present
day the population retains strongly-marked Celtic characteristics.
In the time of Caesar the Arverni were a powerful confederation,
the Arvernian Vercingetorix being the most famous of the Gallic
chieftains who fought against the Romans. Under the empire
Arvernia formed part of Prima Aquitania, and the district shared
in the fortunes of Aquitaine during the Merovingian and Caro-
lingian periods. Auvergne was the seat of a separate countship
before the end of the 8th century; the first hereditary count
was William the Pious (886). By the marriage of Eleanor of
Aquitaine with Henry Plantagenet, the countship passed under
the suzerainty of the kings of England, but at the same time it
was divided, William VII., called the Young (1145-1168), having
been despoiled of a portion of his domain by his uncle William
VIII. .called the Old, who was supported by Henry II. of England,
so that he only retained the region bounded by the Allier and the
Coux. It is this district that from the end of the I3th century
was called the Dauphins d' Auvergne. This family quarrel
occasioned the intervention of Philip Augustus, king of France,
who succeeded in possessing himself of a large part of the country,
which was annexed to the royal domains under the name of
Terre d' Auvergne. As the price of his concurrence with the king
in this matter, the bishop of Clermont, Robert I. (1195-1227),
was granted the lordship of the town of Clermont, which subse-
quently became a countship. Such was the origin of the four
great historic lordships of Auvergne. The Terre d'Auvergne
was first an appanage of Count Alphonse of Poitiers (1241-1271),
and in 1360 was erected into a duchy in the peerage of France
(duch6-pairie) by King John II. in favour of his son John, through
whose daughter the new title passed in 1416 to the house of
Bourbon. The last duke, the celebrated constable Charles of
Bourbon, united the domains of the Dauphinf to those of the

5°

AUXANOMETER— AVA

duchy, but all were confiscated by the crown in consequence
of the sentence which punished the constable's treason in 1527.
The countship, however, had passed in 1422 to the house of
La Tour, and was not annexed to the domain until 1615. The
administration of the royal province of Auvergne was organized
under Louis XIV. At the time of the revolution it formed what
was called a "government," with two divisions: Upper Auvergne
(Aurillac), and Lower Auvergne (Clermont).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Baluze, Histoire genealogique de la maison
d' Auvergne (1708) ; Andre Imberdis, Histoire generate de I' Auvergne
(1867); J. B. M. Bielawski, Histoire de la comte d' Auvergne el de
sa capitate Vic-le-Comte (1868); B. Gonot, Catalogue des ouvrages
imprimes et manuscrits concernant I' Auvergne (1849). See further
Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist., TopobiUiographie, s.v.

AUXANOMETER (Gr. av^avetv, to increase, IJXTOOV, measure),
an apparatus for measuring increase or rate of growth in plants.

AUXENTIUS (fl. c. 370), of Cappadocia, an Arian theologian
of some eminence (see ARIUS). When Constantine deposed the
orthodox bishops who resisted, Auxentius was installed into
the seat of Dionysius, bishop of Milan, and came to be regarded
as the great opponent of the Nicene doctrine in the West. So
prominent did he become, that he was specially mentioned by
name in the condemnatory decree of the synod which Damasus,
bishop of Rome, urged by Athanasius, convened in defence
of the Nicene doctrine (A.D. 369). When the orthodox emperor
Valentinian ascended the throne, Auxentius was left undisturbed
in his diocese, but his theological doctrines were publicly attacked
by Hilary of Poitiers.

The chief source of information about him is the Liber contra
Auxentium in the Benedictine edition of the works of Hilary.

AUXERRE, a town of central France, capital of the department
of Yonne, 38 m. S.S.E. of Sens on the Paris-Lyon railway,
between Laroche and Nevers. Pop. (1906) 16,971. Itissituated
on the slopes and the summit of an eminence on the left bank
of the Yonne, which is crossed by two bridges leading to suburbs
on the right bank. The town is irregularly built and its streets
are steep and narrow, but it is surrounded by wide tree-lined
boulevards, which have replaced the ancient fortifications, and
has some fine churches. That of St Etienne, formerly the
cathedral, is a majestic Gothic building of the I3th to the i6th
centuries. It is entered by three richly sculptured portals,
over the middle and largest of which is a rose window; over the
north portal rises a massive tower, but that which should sur-
mount the south portal is unfinished. The lateral entrances
are sheltered by tympana and arches profusely decorated with
statuettes. The plan consists of a nave, with aisles and lateral
chapels, transept and choir, with a deambulatory at a slightly
lower level. Beneath the choir, which is a fine example of early
Gothic architecture, extends a crypt of the nth century with
mural paintings of the I2th century. The church has some fine
stained glass and many pictures and other works of art. The
ancient episcopal palace, now used as prefecture, stands behind
the cathedral; it preserves a Romanesque gallery of the i2th
century. The church of St Eusebe belongs to the I2th, I3th and
1 6th centuries. Of the abbey church of St Germain, built in
the i3th and I4th centuries, most of the nave has disappeared,
so that its imposing Romanesque tower stands apart from it;
crypts of the gth century contain the tombs of bishops of Auxerre.
The abbey was once fortified and a high wall and cylindrical
tower remain. The buildings (i8th century) are partly occupied
by a hospital and a training-college. The church of St Pierre,
in the Renaissance style of the i6th and i7th centuries, is con-
spicuous for the elaborate ornamentation of its west facade.
The old law-court contains the museum, with a collection of
antiquities and paintings, and a library. In the middle of the
town is a gateway surmounted by a belfry, dating from the isth
century. Auxerre has statues of Marshal Davout, J. B . J. Fourier
and Paul Bert, the two latter natives of the town. The town
is the seat of a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, and a branch of the Bank of France. A lycee
for girls, a communal college and training colleges are among its
educational establishmen ts. Manufactures of ochre, of which there
are quarries in the vicinity, and of iron goods are carried on. The

canal of Nivernais reaches as far as Auxerre, which has a busy
port and carries on boat-building. Trade is principally in the
choice wine of the surrounding vineyards, and in timber and
coal.

Auxerre (Autessiodurum) became the seat of a bishop and a
civitas in the 3rd century. Under the Merovingian kings the
abbey of St Germain, named after the 6th bishop, was founded,
and in the gth century its schools had made the town a seat of
learning. The bishopric was suppressed in 1790.

The countship of Auxerre was granted by King Robert I.
to his son-in-law Renaud, count of Nevers. It remained in the
house of Nevers until 1 184, when it passed by marriage to that of
Courtenay. Other alliances transferred it successively to the
families of Donzy, Chatillon, Bourbon and Burgundy. Alice
of Burgundy, countess of Auxerre, married John of Chalons
(d. 1309), and several counts of Auxerre belonging to the house
of Chalons distinguished themselves in the wars against the
English during the i4th century. John II., count of Auxerre,
was killed at the battle of Crecy (1346), and his grandson, John
IV., sold his countship to King Charles V. in 1370.

AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help), that which gives aid
or support; the term is used in grammar of a verb which
completes the tense, mood or voice of another verb; in engineer-
ing, e.g. of the low steam power used to supplement the sail-
power in sailing ships, still occasionally used in yachts, sealers
or whalers; and in military use, of foreign or allied troops,
more properly of any troops not permanently maintained
under arms. In the British army the term " Auxiliary Forces "
was employed formerly to include the Militia, the Imperial
Yeomanry and the Volunteers.

AUXIMUM (mod. Osimo), an ancient town in Picenum, situated
on an isolated hill 8 m. from the Adriatic, on the road from
Ancona to Nuceria. It was selected by the Romans as a fortress
to protect their settlements in northern Picenum, and strongly
fortified in 174 B.C. The walls erected at that period, of large
rectangular blocks of stone, still exist in great part. Auximum
became a colony at latest in 157 B.C. It often appears in the
history of the civil wars, owing to its strong position. Pompey
was its patron, and intended that Caesar should find resistance
here in 49 B.C. It appears to have been a place of some im-
portance in imperial times, as inscriptions and the monuments
of its forum (the present piazza) show. In the 6th century it is
called by Procopius the chief town of Picenum, Ancona being
spoken of as its harbour. (T. As.)

AUXONNE, a town of eastern France, in the department
of C6te d'Or, 19 m. E.S.E. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon rail-
way to Belfort. , Pop. (1906) 2766 (town); 6307 (commune).
Auxonne is a quiet town situated in a wide plain on the left bank
of the Sa6ne. It preserves remains of ramparts, a stronghold of
the 1 6th century flanked by cylindrical towers, and a sculptured
gateway of the isth century. Vauban restored these works in
the latter half of the I7th century, and built the arsenal now used
as a market. The church of Notre-Dame dates from the I4th
century. Of the two towers surmounting its triple porch only
that to the south is finished. A lofty spire rises above a third
tower over the crossing. The h&tel de ville (isth century) and
some houses of the Renaissance period are also of architectural
interest. A statue of Napoleon I. as a sub-lieutenant com-
memorates his sojourns in the town from 1788 to 1791. Auxonne
has a tribunal of commerce and a communal college. Its
industries are unimportant, but it has a large trade in the vege-
tables produced by the numerous market gardens in the vicinity.

Auxonne, the name of which is derived from its position on
the Sa&ne (ad Sonam), was in the middle ages chief place of a
countship, which in the first half of the i3th century passed to
the dukes of Burgundy. The town received a charter in 1229
and derived some importance from the mint which the dukes of
Burgundy founded in it. It was invested by the allies in 1814,
and surrendered to an Austrian force in the following year.

AVA, the ancient capital of the Burman empire, now a
subdivision of the Sagaing district in the Sagaing division of
Upper Burma. It is situated on the Irrawaddy on the opposite

AVADANA— AVEBURY

bank to Sagaing, with which it was amalgamated in 1889.
Amarapura, another ancient capital, lies 5 m. to the north-east
of Ava, and Mandalay, the present capital, 6 m. to the north.
The classical name of Ava is Yadanapura, " the city of precious
gems." It was founded by Thadomin Paya in A.D. 1364 as
successor to Pagan, and the religious buildings of Pag£n were to
a certain extent reproduced here, although on nothing like the
same scale as regards either size or splendour. It remained the
seat of government for about four centuries with a succession of
thirty kings. In 1782 a new capital, Amarapura, was founded
by Bodaw PayS, but was deserted again in favour of Ava by King
Baggidaw in 1823. On his deposition by King Tharawaddi
in 1837, the capital reverted to Amarapura; but finally in 1860
the last capital of Mandalay was occupied by King Mindon.
For picturesque beauty Ava is unequalled in Burma, but it is
now more like a park than the site of an old capital. Traces of
the great council chamber and various portions of the royal palace
are still visible, but otherwise the secular buildings are completely
destroyed; and most of the religious edifices are also dilapidated.

AVADANA, the name given to a type of Buddhist romance
literature represented by a large number of Sanskrit (Nepalese)
collections, of which the chief are the Avadanasataka (Century
of Legends), and the Divyavadana (The Heavenly Legend).
Though of later date than most of the canonical Buddhist books,
they are held in veneration by the orthodox, and occupy much
the same position with regard to Buddhism that the Puranas
do towards Brahminism.

AVAHI, the native name of a Malagasy lemur (Avahis laniger)
nearly allied to the indri (q.v.), and the smallest representative
of the subfamily Indrisinae, characterized by its woolly coat, and
measuring about 28 in. in length, of which rather more than half
is accounted for by the tail. Unlike the other members of the
group, the avahi is nocturnal, and does not associate in small
troops, but is met with either alone or in pairs. Very slow in
its movements, it rarely descends to the ground, but, when it does,
walks upright like the other members of the group. It is found
throughout the forests which clothe the mountains on the east
coast of Madagascar, and also in a limited district on the north-
west coast, the specimens from the latter locality being of smaller
size and rather different in colour. The eastern phase is generally
rusty red above, with the inner sides of the limbs white; while
the predominant hue in the western form is usually yellowish
brown. (See PRIMATES.) (R. L.*)

AVALANCHE (adopted from a French dialectic form, avalance,
descent), a mass of snow and ice mingled with earth and stones,
which rushes down a mountain side, carrying everything before
it, and producing a strong wind which uproots trees on each side
of its course. Where the supply of snow exceeds the loss by
evaporation the surplus descends the mountain sides, slowly
in the form of glaciers, or suddenly in ice-falls or in avalanches.
A mass of snow may accumulate upon a steep slope and become
compacted into ice by pressure, or remain loosely aggregated.
When the foundation gives way. owing to the loosening effect
of spring rains or from any other cause, the whole mass slides
downward. A very small cause will sometimes set a mass of
overloaded snow in motion. Thunder or even a loud shout is
said to produce this effect when the mass is just poised, and
Swiss guides often enjoin absolute silence when crossing dangerous
spots.

AVALLON, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Yonne, 34 m. S.S.E. of Auxerre on a
branch of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 5197. The
town, with wide streets and picturesque promenades, is finely
situated on a promontory, the base of which is washed on the
south by the Cousin, on the east and west by small streams.
Its chief building, the church of St Lazare, dates from the 1 2th
century. The two western portals are adorned with sculpture
in the ornate Romanesque style; the tower on the left of the
facade was rebuilt in the I7th century. The Tour de L'Horloge,
pierced by a gateway through which passes the Grande Rue, is
a isth century structure containing a museum on its second
floor. Remains of the ancient fortifications, including seven of

the flanking towers, are still to be seen. Avallon has a statue of
Vauban, the military engineer. The public institutions include
the subprefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal
college. The manufacture of biscuits and gingerbread, and of
leather and farm implements is carried on, and there is consider-
able traffic in wood, wine, and the live-stock and agricultural
produce of the surrounding country.

Avallon (Aballo) was in the middle ages the seat of a viscounty
dependent on the duchy of Burgundy, and on the death of
Charles the Bold passed under the royal authority.

AVALON (also written AVALLON, AVOLLON, AVILION and
AVELION), in Welsh mythology the kingdom of the dead, after-
wards an earthly paradise in the western seas, and finally, in the
Arthurian romances, the abode of heroes to which King Arthur
was conveyed after his last battle. In Welsh the name is Ynys
yr Afallon, usually interpreted " Isle of Apples," but possibly
connected with the Celtic tradition of a king over the dead named
Avalloc (in Welsh Afallach). If the traditional derivation is
correct, the name is derived from the Welsh a/a/, an apple, and,
as no other large fruit was well known to the races of northern
Europe, is probably intended to symbolize the feasting and
enjoyments of elysium. Other forms of the name are Ynysvitrin
and Ynysgutrin, " Isle of Glass " — which appear to be identical
with Glasberg, the Teutonic kingdom of the dead. Perhaps
owing to a confusion between Glasberg or Ynysvitrin and the
Anglo-Saxon Glaestinga-burh, Glastonbury, the name " Isle of
Avalon " was given to the low ridge in central Somersetshire
which culminates in Glastonbury Tor, while Glastonbury itself
came to be called Avalon. Attempts have also been made to
identify Avalon with other places in England and Wales.

See Studies in the Arthurian Legend, by J. Rhys (Oxford, 1891) ;
also ARTHUR (KING) ; ATLANTIS.

AVARAY, a French territorial title belonging to a family
some of whose members have been conspicuous in history. The
Bearnaise family named Besiade moved into the province of
Qrleanais in the I7th century, and there acquired the estate of
Avaray. In 1667 Theophile de Besiade, marquis d'Avaray,
obtained the office of grand bailiff of Orleans, which was held by
several of his descendants after him. Claude Antoine de Besiade,
marquis d'Avaray, was deputy for the bailliage of Orleans in
the states-general of 1789, and proposed a Declaration of the
Duties of Man as a pendant to the Declaration of the Rights of
Man; he subsequently became a lieutenant-general in 1814,
a peer of France in 1815, and due d'Avaray in 1818. Antoine
Louis Francois, comte d'Avaray, son of the above, distinguished
himself during the Revolution by his devotion to the comte de
Provence, afterwards Louis XVIII., whose emigration he
assisted. Having nominally become king in 1799, that prince
created the estate of Ile-Jourdain a duchy, under the title of
Avaray, in favour of the comte d'Avaray, ^whom he termed his
" liberator." (M. P.*)

AVARS, or AVARI, an East Caucasian people, the most renowned
of the Lesghian tribes, inhabiting central Daghestan (see
LESGHIANS). They are the only Lesghian tribe who possess a
written language, for which they make use of the Arabic char-
acters. They are often confused with the Avars whose empire
on the Danube was broken by Charlemagne; but Komarov
asserts that they are of more recent origin as a tribe, their name
being Lowland Turki for " vagrant " or " refugee."

AVATAR, a Sanskrit word meaning " descent," specially
used in Hindu mythology (and so in English) to express the
incarnation of a deity visiting the earth for any purpose. The
ten Avatars of Vishnu are the most famous. The Hindus
believe he has appeared (i) as a fish, (2) as a tortoise, (3) as a
hog, (4) as a monster, half man half lion, to destroy the giant
Iranian, (5) as a dwarf, (6) as Rama, (7) again as Rama for the
purpose of killing the thousand-armed giant Cartasuciriargunan,
(8) as Krishna, (9) as, Buddha. They allege that the tenth
Avatar has yet to occur and will be in the form of a white-winged
horse (Kalki) who will destroy the earth.

AVEBURY, JOHN LUBBOCK, IST BARON (1834- ),
English banker, politician and naturalist, was born in London

AVEBURY— AVELLA

on the 30th of April 1834, the son of Sir John William Lubbock,
3rd baronet, himself a highly distinguished man of science.
John Lubbock was sent to Eton in 1845; but three years later
was taken into his father's bank, and became a partner at
twenty-two. In 1865 he succeeded to the baronetcy. His love
of science kept pace with his increasing participation in public
affairs. He served on commissions upon coinage and other
financial questions; and at the same time acted as president
of the Entomological Society and of the Anthropological
Institute. Early in his career several banking reforms of great
importance were due to his initiative, while such works as
Prehistoric Times (1865) and The Origin of Civilization (1870)
were proceeding from his pen. In 1870, and again in 1874, he was
elected a member of parliament for Maidstone. He lost the
seat at the election of 1880; but was at once elected member
for London University, of which he had been vice-chancellor
since 1872. He carried numerous enactments in parliament,
including the Bank Holidays Act 1871, and bills dealing with
absconding debtors, shop hours regulations, public libraries,
open spaces, and the preservation of ancient monuments, and
he proved himself an indefatigable and influential member of
the Unionist party. A prominent supporter of the Statistical
Society, he took an active part in criticizing the encroachment
of municipal trading and the increase of the municipal debt.
He was elected the first president of the Institute of Bankers in
1879; in 1881 he was president of the British Association, and
from 1881 to 1886 president of the Linnaean Society. He
received honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford,
Cambridge (where he was Rede lecturer in 1886), Edinburgh,
Dublin and Wurzburg; and in 1878 was appointed a trustee
of the British Museum. From 1888 to 1892 he was president
of the London Chamber of Commerce; from 1889 to 1890 vice-
chairman and from 1890 to 1892 chairman of the London County
Council. During the same period he served on royal commissions
on education and on gold and silver. In 1890 he was appointed
a privy councillor; and was chairman of the committee of
design on the new coinage in 1891. In 1900 he was raised to
the peerage, under the title of Baron Avebury, and he continued
to play a leading part in public life, not only by the weight of
his authority on many subjects, but by the readiness with which
he lent his support to movements for the public benefit. Among
other matters he was a prominent advocate of proportional
representation. As an original author and a thoughtful
popularizer of natural history and philosophy he had few rivals
in his day, as is evidenced by the number of editions issued of
many of his writings, among which the most widely-read have
been: The Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects (1873), British
Wild Flowers (1875), Ants, Bees and Wasps (1882), Flowers,
Fruit and Leaves (1886), The Pleasures of Life (1887), The Senses,
Instincts and Intelligence of Animals (1888), The Beauties of
Nature (1892), The Use of Life (1894).

AVEBURY, a village in the Devizes parliamentary division
of Wiltshire, England, on the river Kennet, 8 m. by road from
Marlborough. The fine church of St James contains an early
font with Norman carving, a rich Norman doorway, a painted
reredos, and a beautiful old roodstone in good preservation.
Avebury House is Elizabethan, with a curious stone dovecot.
The village has encroached upon the remains of a huge stone
circle (not quite circular), surrounded by a ditch and rampart
of earth, and once approached by two avenues of monoliths.
Within the larger circle were two smaller ones, placed not in the
axis of the great one but on its north-eastern side, each of which
consisted of a double concentric ring of stones; the centre being
in one case a menhir or pillar, in the other a dolmen or tablestone
resting on two uprights. Few traces remain, as the monoliths
have been largely broken up for building purposes. The circle
is the largest specimen of primitive stone monuments in Britain,
measuring on the average 1200 ft. in diameter. The stones are
all the native Sarsens which occur everywhere in the district,
and show no evidence of having been hewn. Those still re-
maining vary in size from 5 to 20 ft. in height above ground,
and from 3 to 12 ft. in breadth. As in the case of Stonehenge,

the purpose for which the Avebury monument was erected
has been the source of much difference of opinion among anti-
quaries, Dr Stukely (Stonehenge a Temple restored to the British
Druids, 1740) regarding it as a Druidical temple, while Fergusson
(Rude Stone Monuments, 1872) believed that it, as well as Silbury
Hill, marks the site of the graves of those who fell in the last
Arthurian battle at Badon Hill (A.D. 520). The majority of anti-
quaries, however, see no reason for dissociating its chronological
horizon from that of the numerous other analogous monuments
found in Great Britain, many of which have been shown to be
burial places of the Bronze Age. Excavations were carried out
here in 1908, but without throwing any important new light on
the monument.

There are many barrows on the neighbouring downs, besides
traces of a double oval of monoliths on Hackpen hill, and the
huge mound of Silbury Hill. Waden Hill, to the south, has been,
like Badbury, identified with Badon Hill, which was the tradi-
tional scene of the twelfth and last great battle of King Arthur
in 520. The Roman road from Winchester to Bath skirts the
south side of Silbury Hill.

At the time of the Domesday Survey, the church of Avebury
(Avreberie, Abury), with two hides attached, was held in chief
by Rainbold, a priest, and was bestowed by Henry III. on the
abbot and monks of Cirencester, who continued to hold it until
the reign of Henry VIII. The manor of Avebury was granted
in the reign of Henry I. to the Benedictine monks of St George
of Boucherville in Normandy, and a cell from that abbey was
subsequently established here. In consequence of the war
with France in the reign of Edward III., this manor was annexed
by the crown, and was conferred on the newly founded college
of New College, Oxford, together with all the possessions,
spiritual and temporal, of the priory.

AVEIA, an ancient town of the Vestini, on the Via Claudia
Nova, 6 m. S.E. of Aquila, N.E. of the modern village of Fossa.
Some remains of ancient buildings still exist, and the name
Aveia still clings to the place. The identification was first
made by V. M. Giovenazzi, Delia Citta di Aveia ne' Vestini
(Rome, 1773). Paintings in the church of S. Maria ad Cryptas,
of the 1 2th to isth centuries, are important in the history of art.
An inscription of a stationarius of the 3rd century, sent here on
special duty (no doubt for the suppression of brigandage), was
found here in 1902 (A. von Domaszewski, Rom. Mitt., 1902, 330).

AVEIRO, a seaport, episcopal see, and the capital of an
administrative district, formerly included in the province of Beira,
Portugal; on the river Vouga, and the Lisbon-Oporto railway.
Pop. (1900) 9979. Aveiro is built on the southern shore of a
marshy lagoon, containing many small islands, and measuring
about ism. from north to south, with an average breadth of
about i m. The Barra Nova, an artificial canal about 33 ft.
deep, was constructed between 1801 and 1808, and gives access to
the Atlantic ocean. The local industries include the preparation
of sea-salt, the catching and curing of fish, especially sardines
and oysters, and the gathering of aquatic plants (molic.o). There
is also a brisk trade in wine, oil and fruit; while the Aveiro
district contains copper and lead mines, besides much good
pasture-land.

Aveiro is probably the Roman Talabriga. In the i6th century
it was the birthplace of Joao Affonso, one of the first navigators
to visit the fishing-grounds of Newfoundland; and it soon
became famous for its fleet of more than sixty vessels, which
sailed yearly to that country, and returned laden with dried
codfish. During the same century the cathedral was built, and
the city was made a duchy. The title " duke of Aveiro " became
extinct when its last holder, Dom Jos6 Mascarenhas e Lancaster,
was burned alive for high treason, in 1759. The administrative
district of Aveiro coincides with the north-western part of the
province of Beira; pop. (1900) 303,169; area, 1065 sq. m.

AVELLA (anc. Abella), a city of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Avellino, 23 m. N.E. of Naples by rail. Pop. (1901)
4107. It is finely situated in fertile territory and its nuts (nuces
Abellanae) and fruit were renowned in Roman days. About 2 m.
to the north-east lies Avella Vecchia, the ancient Abella, regarded

AVELLINO— AVENTINUS

53

by the ancients as a Chalcidian colony. An important Oscan
inscription relates to a treaty with Nola, regarding a joint tempi
of Hercules, attributable to the 2nd century B.C. Under the
early empire it had already become a colony and had perhaps
been one since the time of Sulla. It has remains of the walls 01
the citadel and of an amphitheatre, and lay on the road from
Nola to Abellinum, which was here perhaps joined by a branch
from Suessula.
See J. Beloch, Campanien (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890), 411 seq.

(T. As.)

AVELLINO, a city and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, the
capital of the province of Avellino,ii5o ft. above sea-level, 28 m.
direct and 59 m. by rail E.N.E. of Naples, at the foot of Monte
Vergine. Pop. (1901) 23,760. There are ruins of the castle
constructed in the gth or roth century, in which the antipope
Anacletus II. crowned Count Roger II. king of Sicily and Apulia.
Avellino is the junction of lines to Benevento and Rocchetta S.
Antonio. The name is derived from the ancient Abellinum, the
ruins of which lie 2§ m. north-east, close to the village of Atri-
palda, and consist of remains of city walls and an amphitheatre in
opus reticulatum, i.e. of the early imperial period, when Abellinum
appears to have been the chief place of a tribe, to which belonged
also the independent communities of the A bellinates cognomine
Protropi among the Hirpini, and the Abellinates cognominati
Marsi among the Apulian»(Nissen, Italische Landeskunde, ii.822).
It lay on the boundary of Campania and the territory of the
Hirpini, at the junction of the roads from Nola (and perhaps
also from Suessula) and Salernum to Beneventum.

TheMonte Vergine (4165 ft.) lies 4m. to the N.W. of Avellino;
upon the summit is a sanctuary of the Virgin, founded in 1119,
which contains a miraculous picture attributed to S. Luke
(the greatest festival is on the 8th of September). The present
church is baroque in style, but contains some works of art of
earlier periods. The important archives have been transported
to Naples. (T. As.)

AVEMPACE [Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya, known as
Ibn Bajja or Ibn Sa'igh, i.e. son of the goldsmith, the name
being corrupted by the Latins into Avempace, Avenpace or
Aben Pace], the earliest and one of the most distinguished of
the Arab philosophers of Spain. Little is known of the details
of his life. He was born probably at Saragossa towards the close
of the 1 1 th century. According to Ibn Khaqan, a contemporary
writer, he became a student of the exact sciences and was also a
musician and a poet. But he was a philosopher as well, and
apparently a sceptic. He is said to have rejected the Koran, to
have denied the return to God, and to have regarded death as the
end of existence. But even in that orthodox age he became
vizier to the amir of Murcia. Afterwards he went to Valencia,
then to Saragossa. After the fall of Saragossa (1119) he went to
Seville, then to Xativa, where he is said to have returned to Islam
to save his life. Finally he retired to the Almoravid court at
Fez, where he was poisoned in 1138. Ibn 'Usaibi ' a gives a list
of twenty-five of his works, but few of these remain. He had
a distinct influence upon Averroes (see ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY).

For his life see M'G. de Slane's trans, of Ibn Khallikan's Bio-
graphical Dictionary (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 130 ff.,
and Ibn 'Usaibi'a's biography translated in P. de Gayangos' edition
of the History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain, by al-Maqqari
(London, 1840), vol. ii., appendix, p. xii. List of extant works in
C. Brpckelmann's Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, vol. i. p. 460.
For his philosophy cf. T. J. de Boer's The History of Philosophy in
Islam (London, 1903), ch. vi. (G. W. T.)

AVENARIUS, RICHARD HEINRICH LUDWIG (1843-1896),
German philosopher, was born in Paris on the igth of November
1 843 . His education, begun in Zurich and Berlin, was completed
at the university of Leipzig, where he graduated in 1876. In
1877 he became professor of philosophy in Zurich, where he
died on the i8th of August 1896. At Leipzig he was one of the
founders of the Akademisch-philosophische Verein, and was the
first editor of the Vierteljahrsschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Philo-
sophie. In 1868 he published an essay on the Pantheism of
Spinoza. His chief works are Philosophic als Denken der Welt
gemiiss dem Princip des kleinsten Kraftmasses (1876) and the

Kritik der reinen Erfahrung (1888-1800). In these works he
made an attempt to co-ordinate thought and action. Like
Mach, he started from the principle of economy of thinking, and
in the Kritik endeavoured to explain pure experience in relation
to knowledge and environment. He discovers that statements
dependent upon environment constitute pure experience. This
philosophy, called Empirio-criticism, is not, however, a realistic
but an idealistic dualism, nor can it be called materialism.

See Wundt, Philos. Stud. xiii. (1807); Carstanjen and Willy
in Zeitsch. f. uriss. Philos. xx. (1896), 361 ff.; xx. 57 ff. ; xxii.
S3 ff.; J. Petzoldt's Einfitkrung in d. Philos. d. reinen Erfahrung
(1900).

AVENGER OF BLOOD, the person, usually the nearest
kinsman of the murdered man, whose duty it was to avenge his
death by killing the murderer. In primitive societies, before
the evolution of settled government, or the uprise of a
systematized criminal law, crimes of violence were regarded as
injuries of a personal character to be punished by the sufferer or
his kinsfolk. This right of vengeance was common to most
countries, and in many was the subject of strict regulations and
limitations. It was prevented from running into excesses by
the law of sanctuary (q.v.) and in many lands the institution of
blood-money, and the wergild offered the wrong-doer a mode of
escaping from his enemies' revenge. The Mosaic law recognized
the right of vengeance, but not the money-compensation. The
Koran, on the contrary, while sanctioning the vengeance, also
permits pecuniary commutation for murder.

AVENGERS, or VENDICATORI, a secret society formed about
1186 in Sicily to avenge popular wrongs. The society was
finally suppressed by King William II., the Norman, who hanged
the grand master and branded the members with hot irons.

AVENTAIL, or AVANTAILLE (O. Fr. esvenlail, presumably from
a Latin word exveniaculum, air-hole), the mouthpiece of an old-
fashioned helmet, movable to admit the air.

AVENTINUS (1477-1534), the name taken by JOHANN TUE-
MAIR, author of the Annales Boiorum, or Annals of Bavaria,
from Aventinum, the Latin name of the town of Abensberg,
where he was born on the 4th of July 1477. Having studied at
Ingolstadt, Vienna, Cracow and Paris, he returned to Ingolstadt
in 1507, and in 1509 was appointed tutor to Louis and Ernest,
the two younger sons of Albert the Wise, the late duke of Bavaria-
Munich. He retained this position until 1517, wrote a Latin
grammar, and other manuals for the use of his pupils, and in
1515 travelled in Italy with Ernest. Encouraged by William IV.,
duke of Bavaria, he began to write the Annales Boiorum, about
1317, and finishing this book in 1521, undertook a German
version of it, entitled Bayersche Chronik, which he completed
some years later. He assisted to found the Sodalitas litteraria
Angilostadensis, under the auspices of which several old manu-
scripts were brought to light. Although Aventinus did not
definitely adopt the reformed faith, he sympathized with the
reformers and their teaching, and showed a strong dislike for
^he monks. On this account he was imprisoned in 1528, but his
rriends soon effected his release. The remainder of his life was
somewhat unsettled, and he died at Regensburg on the gth of
January 1534. The Annales, which are in seven books, deal
with the history of Bavaria in conjunction with general history
from the earliest times to 1460, and the author shows a strong
sympathy for the Empire in its struggle with the Papacy. He
:ook immense pains with his work, and to some degree anticipated
the modern scientific method of writing history. The Annales
were first published in 1 554, but many important passages were
omitted in this edition, as they reflected on the Roman Catholics.
A more complete edition was published at Basel in 1580 by
Nicholas Cisner. Aventinus, who has been called the " Bavarian
ierodotus," wrbte other books of minor importance, and a
complete edition of his works was published at Munich (1881-
^886). More recently a new edition (six vols.) has appeared.

See T. Wiedemann, Johann Turmair gen. Aventinus (Freising,

858); \V. Dittmar, Aventin (Nordlingen, 1862); J. von Dollinger,

Aventin und seine Zeit (Munich, 1877); S. Riezler, Zum Schulze der

neuesten Edition von Aventins Annalen (Munich, 1886); F. X. von

Wegele, Aventin (Bamberg, 1890).

54

AVENTURINE— AVERAGE

AVENTURINE, or AVANTURINE, a variety of quartz containing
spangles of mica or scales of iron-oxide, which confer brilliancy
on the stone. It is found chiefly in the Ural Mountains, and
is cut for ornamental purposes at Ekaterinburg. Some of the
Siberian aventurine, like that of the vase given by Nicholas I.
to Sir R. Murchison, in 1843, is a micaceous iron-stained quartz,
of but little beauty. Most aventurine is of reddish brown or
yellow colour, but a green variety, containing scales of fuchsite or
chrome-mica, is also known. This green aventurine, highly valued
by the Chinese, is said to occur in the Bellary district in India.

Aventurine felspar, known also as Sun-stone (q.v.) is found
principally at Tvedestrand in south Norway, and is a variety
of oligoclase enclosing micaceous scales of haematite. Other
kinds of felspar, even orthoclase, may however also show the
aventurine appearance. Both plagioclastic and orthoclastic
aventurine occur at several localities in the United States.

The mineral aventurine takes its name from the well-known
aventurine-glass of Venice. This is a reddish brown glass
with gold-like spangles, more brilliant than most of the
natural stone. The story runs that this kind of glass was
originally made accidentally at Murano by a workman, who
let some copper filings fall into the molten " metal," whence
the product was called awenturino. From the Murano glass
the name passed to the mineral, which displayed a rather
similar appearance. (F. W. R.*)

AVENUE (the past participle feminine of Fr. avenir, to come
to), a way of approach; more particularly, the chief entrance-
road to a country house, with rows of trees on each side; the
trees themselves are said to form the avenue. In modern times
the word has been much used as a name for streets in towns,
whether with or without trees, such as Fifth Avenue in New York,
or Shaftesbury Avenue in London.

AVENZOAR, or ABUMERON [Abu Merwan 'Abdal-Malik ibn
Zuhr], Arabian physician, who flourished at the beginning of the
1 2th century, was born at Seville, where he exercised his pro-
fession with great reputation. His ancestors had been celebrated
as physicians for several generations, and his son was afterwards
held by the Arabians to be even more eminent in his profession
than Avenzoar himself. He was a contemporary of Averroes,
who, according to Leo Africanus, heard his lectures, and learned
physic of him. He belonged, in many respects, to the Dog-
matists or Rational School, rather than to the Empirics. He was
a great admirer of Galen; and in his writings he prdtests
emphatically against quackery and the superstitious remedies
of the astrologers. He shows no inconsiderable knowledge of
anatomy in his remarkable description of inflammation and
abscess of the mediastinum in his own person, and its diagnosis
from common pleuritis as well as from abscess and dropsy of
the pericardium. In cases of obstruction or of palsy of the gullet,
his three modes of treatment are ingenious. He proposes to
support the strength by placing the patient in a tepid bath of
nutritious liquids, that might enter by cutaneous imbibition,
but does not recommend this. He speaks more favourably of the
introduction of food into the stomach by a silver tube; and
he strongly recommends the use of nutritive enemata. From
his writings it would appear that the offices of physician, surgeon
and apothecary were already considered as distinct professions.
He wrote a book entitled The Method of Preparing Medicines
and Diet, which was translated into Hebrew in the year 1280,
and thence into Latin by Paravicius, whose version, first printed
at Venice, 1490, has passed through several editions.

AVERAGE, a term found in two main senses, (i) The first,
which occurs in old law, is from a Law-Latin averagium, and is
connected with the Domesday Book avera, -the " day's work
which the king's tenants gave to the sheriff "; it is supposed
to be a form of the O. Fr. owe (ceuvre), work, affected by aver,
the O. Eng. word for cattle or property, but the etymology is
uncertain. As meaning some form of feudal service rendered
by tenants to their superiors, it survived for a long time in the
Scottish phrase " arriage and carriage," this form of the word
being due to a contraction into " arage." (2) The second word,
which represents the modern usages, is also uncertain in its

derivation, but corresponded with the Fr. avarie, and was early
spelt " averays," recurring also as " avaria," " averia," and
meaning a certain tax on goods, and then more precisely in mari-
time law any charge additional to " freight " (see AFFREIGHT-
MENT), payable by the owner of goods sent by ship. Hence the
modern employment of the term for particular and general
average (see below) in marine insurance. The essential of
equitable distribution, involved in this sense, was transferred
to give the word " average " its more colloquial meaning of an
equalization of amount, or medium among various quantities,
or nearest common rate or figure. (For a discussion of the ety-
mology, see the New English Dictionary, especially the concluding
note with reference to authorities.)

In Shipping. — Average, in modern law, is the term used in
maritime commerce to signify damages or expenses resulting
from the accidents of navigation. Average is either general or
particular. General average arises when sacrifices have been
made, or expenditures incurred, for the preservation of the ship,
cargo and freight, from some peril of the sea or from its effects.
It implies a subsequent contribution, from all the parties con-
cerned, rateably to the values of their respective interests, to
make good the loss thus occasioned. Particular average signifies
the damage or partial loss happening to the ship, goods, or
freight by some fortuitous or unavoidable accident. It is borne
by the parties to whose property the 'misfortune happens or
by their insurers. The term average originally meant what is
now distinguished as general average; and the expression
" particular average," although not strictly accurate, came to
be afterwards used for the convenience of distinguishing those
damages or partial losses for which no general contribution could
be claimed.

Although nothing can be more simple than the fundamental
principle of general average, that a loss incurred for the advantage
of all the coadventurers should be made good by them all in
equitable proportion to their stakes in the adventure, the applica-
tion of this principle to the varied and complicated cases which
occur in the course of maritime commerce has given rise to many
diversities of usage at different periods and in different countries.
It is soon discovered that the principle cannot be applied in any
settled or consistent manner unless by the aid of rules of a
technical and sometimes of a seemingly arbitrary character.
The difficulty, which at one time seemed nearly insuperable,
of bringing together the rules in force in the several maritime
countries, has been to a large extent overcome — not by legislation
but by framing a set of rules covering the principal points of
difference in such a manner as to satisfy, on the whole, those
who are practically concerned, and to lead them to adopt these
rules in their contracts of affreightment and contracts of insur-
ance (see INSURANCE: Marine). The honour of the achievement
belongs to a small number of men who recognized the History of
need of uniformity. The work began in May 1860 at the York-
a congress held at Glasgow, under the presidency of A"twerP
Lord Brougham, assisted by Lord Neaves. Further
congresses were held in London (1862), and at York (1864),
when a body of rules known as the " York Rules " was agreed
to. There the matter stood, until it was taken up by the
" Association for the Reform and Codification of the Law of
Nations" at conferences held at the Hague (1875), Bremen
(1876) and Antwerp (1877). Some changes were made in
the " York Rules "; and so altered, the body of rules was
adopted at the last-named conference, and was styled the
" York and Antwerp (or York-Antwerp) Rules." The value
of these rules was quickly perceived, and practical use of them
followed. But they proved to be insufficient, or unsatisfactory,
on some points; and again, in the autumn of 1890, a conference
on the subject was held, this time at Liverpool, by the same
Association, under the able presidency of Dr F. Sieveking,
president of the Hanseatic High Court of Appeal at Hamburg.
Important changes were then made, carrying further certain
departures from English law, already apparent in the earlier
rules, in favour of views prevailing upon the continent of Europe
and in the United States. The new rules were styled the York-

AVERAGE

55

Antwerp Rides 1890. In practice they quickly displaced those
of 1877; and in 1892, at a conference of the same Association
held at Genoa, it was formally declared that theonly international
rules of general average having the sanction and authority of the
association were the York-Antwerp Rules as revised in 1890,
and that the original rules were rescinded. It is this later
body of rules which is now known as the York-Antwerp Rules.
Reference is now to be found in most English contracts of carriage
and contracts of insurance, to these rules, as intended to govern
the adjustment of G.A. between the parties; with the result that
(so far as the rules cover the ground) adjustments do not depend
upon the law of the place of destination, and so do not vary
according to the destination, or the place at which the voyage
may happen to be broken up, as used formerly to be the case.
The rules are as follows: —

RULE I. — JETTISON OF DECK CARGO
No jettison of deck cargo shall be made good as G.A.
Every structure not built in with the frame of the vessel shall be
considered to be a part of the deck of the vessel.

RULE II. — DAMAGE BY JETTISON AND SACRIFICE FOR THE
COMMON SAFETY

Damage done to a ship and cargo, or either of them, by or in
consequence of a sacrifice made for the common safety, and by
water which goes down a ship's hatches opened, or other opening
made for the purpose of making a jettison for the common safety,
shall be made good as G.A.

RULE III. — EXTINGUISHING FIRE ON SHIPBOARD

Damage done to a ship and cargo, or either of them, by water or
otherwise, including damage by oeaching or scuttling a burning
ship, in extinguishing a fire on board the ship, shall be made good
as G.A. ; except that no compensation shall be made for damage
to such portions of the ship and bulk cargo, or to such separate
packages of cargo, as have been on fire.

RULE IV. — CUTTING AWAY WRECK

Loss or damage caused by cutting away the wreck or remains of
spars, or of other things which have previously been carried away
by sea-peril, shall not be made good as G.A.

RULE V. — VOLUNTARY STRANDING

When a ship is intentionally run on shore, and the circumstances
are such that if that course were not adopted she would inevitably
sink, or drive on shore or on rocks, no loss or damage caused to
the ship, cargo and freight, or any of them, by such intentional
running on shore, shall be made good as G.A. But in all other
cases where a ship is intentionally run on shore for the common
safety, the consequent loss or damage shall be allowed as G.A.

RULE VI. — CARRYING PRESS OF SAIL — DAMAGE TO OR Loss
OF SAILS

Damage to or loss of sails and spars, or either of them, caused by
forcing a ship off the ground or by driving her higher up the ground,
for the common safety, shall be made good as G.A. ; but where a
ship is afloat, no loss or damage caused to the ship, cargo and freight,
or any of them, by carrying a press of sail, shall be made good as
G.A.

RULE VII.— DAMAGE TO ENGINES IN REFLOATING A SHIP

Damage caused to machinery and boilers of a ship which is
ashore and in a position of peril, in endeavouring to refloat, shall
be allowed in G.A., when shown to have arisen from an actual
intention to float the ship for the common safety at the risk of
such damage.

RULE VIII. — EXPENSES OF LIGHTENING A SHIP WHEN ASHORE,
AND CONSEQUENT DAMAGE

When a ship is ashore, and, in order to float her, cargo, bunker
coals and ship's stores, or any of them, are discharged, the extra
cost of lightening, lighter hire, and reshipping (if incurred), and
the loss or damage sustained thereby, shall be admitted as G.A.

RULE IX. — CARGO, SHIP'S MATERIALS, AND STORES BURNT
FOR FUEL

Cargo, ship's materials and stores, or any of them, necessarily
burnt for fuel for the common safety at a time of peril, shall be
admitted as G.A., when and only when an ample supply of fuel
had been provided ; but the estimated quantity of coals that would
have been consumed, calculated at the price current at the ship's
last port of departure at the date of her leaving, shall be charged
to the shipowner and credited to the G.A.

RULE X. — EXPENSES AT PORT OF REFUGE, &c.

(a) When a ship shall have entered a port or place of refuge, or
shall have returned to her port or place of loading, in consequence
of accident, sacrifice, or other extraordinary circumstances, which
render that necessary for the common safety, the expenses of
entering such port or place shall be admitted as G.A. ; and when

she shall have sailed thence with her original cargo, or a part of it,
the corresponding expenses of leaving such port or place, consequent
upon such entry or return, shall likewise be admitted as G.A.

(b) The cost of discharging cargo from a ship, whether at a port
or place of loading, call or refuge, shall be admitted as G.A., when
the discharge was necessary for the common safety or to enable
damage to the ship, caused by sacrifice or accident during the voyage,
to be repaired, if the repairs were necessary for the safe prosecution
of the voyage.

(c) Whenever the cost of discharging cargo from a ship is ad-
missible as G.A., the cost of reloading and storing such cargo on
board the said ship, together with all storage charges on such cargo,
shall likewise be so admitted. But when the ship is condemned
or does not proceed on her original voyage, no storage expenses
incurred after the date of the ship s condemnation or of the abandon-
ment of the voyage shall be admitted as G.A.

(d) If a ship under average be in a port or place at which it is
practicable to repair her, so as to enable her to carry on the whole
cargo, and if, in order to save expenses, either she is towed thence
to some other port or place of repair or to her destination, or the
cargo or a portion of it is transhipped by another ship, or otherwise
forwarded, then the extra cost of such towage, transhipment and
forwarding, or any of them (up to the amount of the extra expense
saved), shall be payable by the several parties to the adventure in
proportion to the extraordinary expense saved.

RULE XI. — WAGES AND MAINTENANCE OF CREW IN PORT or
REFUGE, &c.

When a ship shall have entered or shall have been detained in any
port or place under the circumstances, or for the purposes of the
repairs, mentioned in Rule X., the wages payable to the master,
officers and crew, together with the cost of maintenance of the same,
during the extra period of detention in such port or place until the
ship shall or should have been made ready to proceed upon her
voyage, shall be admitted as G.A. But when this ship is condemned
or does not proceed on her original voyage, the wages and mainten-
ance of the master, officers and crew, incurred after the date of the
ship's condemnation or of the abandonment of the voyage, shall not
be admitted as G.A.

RULE XII. — DAMAGE TO CARGO IN DISCHARGING, &c.
Damage done to or loss of cargo necessarily caused in the act of
discharging, storing, reloading and stowing shall be made good as
G.A. when and only when the cost of those measures respectively
is admitted as G.A.

RULE XIII.— DEDUCTIONS FROM COST OF REPAIRS
In adjusting claims for G.A., repairs to be allowed in G.A. shall
be subject to the following deductions in respect of " new for old,"
viz.: —

In the case of iron or steel ships, from date of original register to
the date of accident : —

Up to f All repairs to be allowed in full, except painting
i year old -I or coating of bottom, from which one-third is to be
(A.) [ deducted.

One-third to be deducted off repairs to and re-
newal of woodwork of hull, masts and spars, furni-
ture, upholstery, crockery, metal and glassware, also
Between sails, rigging, ropes, sheets and hawsers (other than
i and 3 years-*, wire and chain), awnings, covers and painting.

(B.) One-sixth to be deducted off wire rigging, wire

ropes and wire hawsers, chain cables and chains,
donkey engines, steam winches and connexions,
steam cranes and connexions; other repairs in full.

Deductions as above under clause B, except that
one-sixth be deducted off ironwork of masts and
| spars, and machinery (inclusive of boilers and their
I mountings).

f Deductions as above under clause C, except that

Between one-third be deducted off ironwork of masts and

6 and loyears-i spars, repairs to and renewal of all machinery (in-

(D.) elusive of boilers and their mountings), and all

I hawsers, ropes, sheets and rigging.

Between f One-third to be deducted off all repairs and re-
10 & 15 years! newals, except ironwork of hull and cementing and
(£.) chain cables, from which one-sixth to be deducted.

I Anchors to be allowed in full.

f One-third to be deducted off all repairs and re-
's newals. Anchors to be allowed in full. One-sixth
I to be deducted off chain cables.

The deductions (except as to provisions and stores,
machinery and boilers) to be regulated by the age of
the ship, and not the age of the particular part of
Generally \ her to which they apply. No painting bottom to be
(G.) ] allowed if the bottom has not been painted within six
months previous to the date of accident. No deduc-
tion to be made in respect of old material which is
repaired without being replaced by new, and pro-
L visions and stores which have not been in use.

Between

3 and 6 years

(C.)

AVERAGE

In the case of wooden or composite ships : —

When a ship is under one year old from date of original register,
at the time of accident, no deduction " new for old " shall be
made. After that period a deduction of one-third shall be
made, with the following exceptions : —

Anchors shall be allowed in full. Chain cables shall be
subject to a deduction of one-sixth only.

No deduction shall be made in respect of provisions and
stores which had not been in use.

Metal sheathing shall be dealt with, by allowing in full
the cost of a weight equal to the gross weight of metal sheath-
ing stripped off, minus the proceeds of the 6ld metal. Nails,
felt and labour metalling are subject to a deduction of one-
third.
In the case of ships generally: —

In the case of all ships, the expense of straightening bent iron-
work, including labour of taking out and replacing it, shall
be allowed in full.

Graving dock dues, including expenses of removals, cart-
ages, use of shears, stages and graving dock materials, shall
be allowed in full.

RULE XIV. — TEMPORARY REPAIRS

No deductions " new for old " shall be made from the cost of
temporary repairs of damage allowable as G.A.

RULE XV. — Loss OF FREIGHT

Loss of freight arising from damage to or loss of cargo shall be
made good as G.A., either when caused by a G.A. act or when
the damage to or loss of cargo is so made good.

RULE XVI. — AMOUNT TO BE MADE GOOD FOR CARGO LOST OR

DAMAGED BY SACRIFICE

The amount to be made good as G.A. for damage or loss of goods
sacrificed shall be the loss which the owner of the goods has sustained
thereby, based on the market values at the date of the arrival of the
vessel or at the termination of the adventure.

• RULE XVII. — CONTRIBUTORY VALUES

The contribution to a G.A. shall be made upon the actual values
of the property at the termination of the adventure, to which shall
be added the amount made good as G.A. for property sacrificed;
deduction being made from the shipowner's freight and passage-
money at risk, of such port charges and crew's wages as would not
have been incurred had the ship and cargo been totally lost at the
date of the G.A. act or sacrifice, and have not been allowed as G.A. ;
deduction being also made from the value of the property of all
charges incurred in respect thereof subsequently to the G.A. act,
except such charges as are allowed in G.A.

Passengers' luggage and personal effects, not shipped under bill
of lading, shall not contribute to G.A.

RULE XVIII. — ADJUSTMENT

Except as provided in the foregoing rules, the adjustment shall
be drawn up in accordance with the law and practice that would
have governed the adjustment had the contract of affreightment
not contained a clause to pay G.A. according to these rules.

The above rules differ in some important respects from
English common law, and from former English practice. They
follow ideas upon the subject of G.A. which have prevailed in
practice in foreign countries (though often in apparent opposition
to the language of the codes), in preference to the more strict
principle of the common law applied by English courts. That
principle requires that, in order to have the character of G.A.
a sacrifice or expenditure must be made for the common safety
of the several interests in the adventure and under the pressure
of a common risk. It is not enough that the sacrifice or expendi-
ture is prudent, or even necessary to enable the common adven-
ture to be completed. G.A., on the English view, only arises
where the safely of the several interests is at stake. " The idea
of a common commercial adventure, as distinguished from the
common safety from the sea," is not recognized. It is not
sufficient " that an expenditure should have been made to
benefit both cargo owner and shipowner."1

Thus expenses incurred after ship and cargo are in safety, say at
a port of refuge, are not generally, by English law, to be treated
Port of as G.A. ; although the putting into port may have
refuge ex- been f°r safety, and therefore a G.A. act. If the put-
pease*. tmg 'nto P°rt has been necessitated by a G.A. sacrifice,
as by cutting away the ship's masts, the case is different ;
the port expenses, the expenses of repairing the G.A. damage, and
the incidental expenses of unloading, storing and reloading the
cargo are, in such a case, treated as consequences of the original
sacrifice, and therefore subjects for contribution. But where the
reason for putting in is to avoid some danger, such as a storm or

1 Per Bowen, L.J., in Svensden v. Wallace, 1883, 13 Q.B.D. at p. 84.

hostile cruiser, or to effect repairs necessitated by some accidental
damage to the ship, the G.A. sacrifice is considered to be at an end
when the port has been reached, if the ship and cargo are then in
physical safety. The subsequent expenditure in the port is said not
to flow from that sacrifice, but from the necessity of completing the
voyage, and is incurred in performance of the shipowner's obligation
under his contract. The practice of English average adjusters has
indeed modified this strict view by treating the expense of unloading
as G.A. ; but it may well be doubted whether that practice can be
legally supported. Moreover, expenditure in the port which is in-
curred in protecting the cargo as in warehousing it, is by English
practice treated as a charge to be borne by the cargo for whose
benefit it was incurred.

If we turn now to York-Antwerp Rule X., it will be seen that a
much broader view is adopted. Whatever the reason for putting
into the port of refuge, provided it was necessary for the common
safety, the expenses of going in, and the consequent expenses of
getting out (if she sails again with all or part of her original cargo),
are allowed as G.A., Rule X. (a). Further, the cost of discharging
the cargo to enable damage to the ship to be repaired, whether
caused by sacrifice or by accident during the voyage, is to be allowed
as G.A., " if the repairs were necessary for the safe prosecution of
the voyage," Rule X. (6). And that is to be so even where such re-
pairs are done at a port qf call, as well as where done at a port of
refuge. Again, when the cost of discharging is treated as G.A., so
also are to be the expenses of storing the cargo on shore, and of re-
loading and stowing it on board, after the repairs have been done
(Rule X. (c) ), together with any damage or loss incidental to those
operations (Rule XII.).

Further, by Rule XI. the wages of the master, officers and crew,
and the cost of their maintenance, during the detention of a ship
under the circumstances, or for the purpose of the repairs mentioned
in Rule X., are to be allowed in G.A. It is questionable whether
English law allows the wages and maintenance of the crew at a port
of refuge in any .case. Where the detention is to repair accidental
damage it seems clear that they are not allowed. And in practice
under common law, the allowance is never made; so that Rule XI.
is an important concession to the shipowner. Like the changes
introduced by Rule X., it is a change towards the practice in foreign
countries.

It may be noted that the rules do not afford equal protection to
a shipper in the comparatively infrequent case of his being put to
expense by the delay at a port of refuge. Thus a shipper of cattle
is not entitled to have the extra wages and provisions of his cattle-
men on board, nor the extra fodder consumed by the cattle during
the stay at a repairing port, made as good as G.A. under Rules XI.
and X. (Anglo-Argentine &c. Agency v. Temperley Shipping Co.,
1899, 2 Q.B. 403).

As to the acts which amount to G.A. sacrifices, as distinguished
from expenditures, the York-Antwerp Rules do not much alter
English common law. They do, however, make definite Oeaeral
provisions upon some points on which authority was average
scanty or doubtful. (See Rules I.-IX.) And in Rule I., sacrifices.
as to jettison of deck cargo, a change is made from the
common law rule, for the jettison is not allowed as G.A. even though
the cargo be carried on deck in accordance with an established
custom of the particular trade.

Rule III. deals with damage done in extinguishing fire on board
a ship. Modern decisions have cleared away the old doubts whether
such damage to ship or cargo should, at law, be allowed in G.A.
But recent cases in the United States have raised the question
whether the allowance should be made where the fire occurs in port,
and is extinguished, not by the master, but by a public authority
acting in the interests of the public. The Supreme Court of the
United States decided against the allowance in 1894 in a case of
Ralli v. Troup (157 U.S. 386). The ship had there been scuttled
to put out a fire on board, by the port authority, acting upon their
own judgment, but with the assent of the master. It was held that
the damage suffered by ship and cargo ought not to be made good
by G.A. contributions; for the sacrifice had not been made "by
some one specially charged with the control and safety of that ad-
venture," but was the compulsory act of a public authority. On
the other hand, in the English case of Papayanni v. Grampian S.S.
Co. (I. Com. Ca. 448), Mathew, J., held that the scuttling of a ship
at a port of refuge in Algeria, by orders of the captain of the port,
was a G.A. act. It had been done in the interest of ship and cargo,
and there was no evidence of any other motive.

Rule V. deals with the question whether, and under what con-
ditions, a voluntary stranding of the ship is a G.A. act, in a manner
which will probably be held to express the law in England when
the matter comes up for decision.

Rules VI. and VII. deal with the damage sustained by the ship,
or her appliances, in efforts to force her off the ground when she
has stranded. Such efforts involve an abnormal use which is likely
to cause damage to sails and spars, or to engines and boilers^ and
they are treated as acts of sacrifice. The case of " The Bona," 1895
(P. 125) shows that the rules are in accord with English law upon
the point. The court of appeal held that both the damage sustained
by the engines while worked to get the ship off, and the coal and
stores consumed, were subjects for G.A. contribution at common law.

AVERAGE

57

Rule VIII. allows as G.A. any damage sustained by cargo when
discharged and, say, lightered for the purpose of getting the ship off
a strand. And the corresponding damage in the case of cargo dis-
charged at a port of refuge to enable repairs to be done to the ship
is allowed by Rule XII. But in the latter case the allowance does
not expressly extend to damage sustained while stored on land.
Whether the law would require contribution to a loss of goods, say,
by thieves or by fire, while landed for repairs, is not clear. Where
the landing has been necessitated by a G.A. act, as cutting away
masts, it would seem that the loss ought to be made good, as being
a result of the special risks to which those goods have thereby been
exposed. The risks which they would have run if they had remained
on board throughout are taken into account, as will presently
appear, in estimating how much of the damage is to be made good.

Where cattle were taken into a port of refuge in Brazil, owing to
accidental damage to the ship, with the result that they could not
legally be landed at their destination (Deptford), and had to be
taken to another port (Antwerp), at which they were of much less
value, this loss of value was allowed in G.A. (Anglo- Argentine dfc.
Agency v. Temperley Shipping Co., 1899, 2 Q.B. 403).

The case of a stranded ship and cargo often gives rise to difficulty
as to whether the cost of operations to lighten the ship, and after-
wards to get her floated, should be treated as G.A. expenditure, or
as expenses separately incurred in saving the separate interests.
The true conclusion seems to be that either the whole operation
should be treated as one for the common safety, and the whole
expense be contributed to by all the interests saved, or else the
several parts of the operation should be kept distinct, debiting the
cost of each to the interests thereby saved. Which of these two
views should be adopted in any case seems to depend upon the
motives with which the earlier operations (usually the discharge of
the cargo) were presumably undertaken. It may, however, happen
that this test cannot be applied once for all. Take the case of a
stranded ship carrying a bulky cargo of hemp and grain, but carrying
also some bullion. Suppose this last to be rescued and taken to a
place of safety at small expense in comparison with its value. It
may well be that that operation must be regarded as done in the
interest simply of the bullion itself, but that the subsequent opera-
tions of lightening the ship and floating her can only be properly
regarded as undertaken in the common interest of ship, hemp, grain
and freight. In such a case there will be a G.A. contribution towards
those later operations by those interests. But the bullion will not con-
tribute ; it will merely bear the expense of its own rescue (Royal Mail
S. P. Co. v. English Bank of Rio de Janeiro, 1887, 19 Q.B.D. 362).

The York-Antwerp Rules have not only had the valuable result
of introducing uniformity where there had been great variety, and
corresponding certainty as to the principles which will be acted
upon m adjusting any G.A. loss, but also they have introduced
greater clearness and definiteness on points where there had been
a want of definition. Thus Rule XIII. has laid down a careful and
definite scale to regulate the deductions from the cost of repairs, in
respect of " new for old," in place of the former somewhat uncertain
customary rules which varied according to the place of adjustment;
while at the same time the opportunity has been taken of adapting
the scale of deductions to modern conditions of shipbuilding. And
Rule XVII. lays down a rule as to contributory values in place of the
widely varying rulesof different countries as tothe amounts upon which
ship and freight shall contribute (cf. Gow, Marine Insurance, 305).

It may be of interest to refer briefly to one or two main
principles which govern the adjustment (q.v.) of general average,
i.e. the calculation of the amounts to be made good and paid
by the several interests, which is a complicated matter. The
fundamental idea is that the several interests at risk shall
contribute in proportion to the benefits they have severally
received by the completion of the adventure. Contributions
are not made in proportion to the amounts at stake when the
sacrifice was made, but in proportion to the results when the
adventure has come to an end. An interest which has become
lost after the sacrifice, during the subsequent course of the
voyage, will pay nothing; an interest which has become de-
preciated will pay in proportion to the diminished value. The
liability to contribute is inchoate only when the sacrifice has been
made. It becomes complete when the adventure has come to
an end, either by arrival at the destination, or by having been
broken up at some intermediate point, while the interest in
question still survives. To this there is one exception, in the
case of G.A. expenditure. Where such expenditure has been
incurred by the owner of one interest, generally by the ship-
owner, the repayment to him by the other interests ought not
to be wholly dependent upon the subsequent safety of those
interests at the ultimate destination. If those other interests or
some of them arrive, or are realized, as by being landed at an
intermediate port, the rule (as in the case of G.A. sacrifices)

is that the contributions are to be in proportion to the arrived
or realized values. But if all are lost the burden of the expendi-
ture ought not to remain upon the interest which at first bore it;
and the proper rule seems to be that contributions must be made
by all the interests which were at stake when it was made, in
proportion to their then values.

Again, the object of the law of G.A. is to put one whose
property is sacrificed upon an equal footing with the rest, not
upon a better footing. Thus, if goods to the value of £100 have
been thrown overboard for the general safety, the owner of
those goods must not receive the full £100 in contribution. He
himself must bear a part of it, for those goods formed part of the
adventure for whose safety the jettison was made; and it is
owing to the partial safety of the adventure that any contribution
at all is received by him. He, therefore, is made to contribute
with the other saved interests towards his own loss, in respect
of the amount " made good " to him for that. The full £100
is treated as the amount to be made good, but the owner of the
goods is made to contribute towards that upon the sum of £100
thus saved to him.

The same principle has a further consequence. The amount
to be made good will not necessarily be the value of the goods
or other property in their condition at the time they were
sacrificed; so to calculate it would in effect be to withdraw
those goods from the subsequent risks of the voyage, and thus
to put them in a better position than those which were not
sacrificed. Hence, in estimating the amount to be made good,
the value of the goods or property sacrificed must be estimated
as on arrival, with reference to the condition in which they would
probably have arrived had they remained on board throughout
the voyage.

The liability to pay G.A. contributions falls primarily upon
the owner of the contributing interest, ship, goods or freight.
But in practice the contributions are paid by the insurers of the
several interests. Merchants seldom have to concern themselves
with the subject. And yet in an ordinary policy of insurance
there is no express provision requiring the underwriter to in-
demnify the assured against this liability. The policy commonly
contains clauses which recognize such an obligation, e.g. a
warranty against average " unless general," or an agreement
that G.A. shall be payable " as per foreign statement," or
" according to York-Antwerp Rules "; but it does not directly
state the obligation. It assumes that. The explanation seems
to be that the practice of the underwriter to pay the contribution
has been so uniform, and his liability has been so fully recognized,
that express provisions were needless. But one result has been
that very differing views of the ground of the obligation have
been held. One view has been that it is covered by the sue and
labour clause of an ordinary policy, by which the insurer agrees
to bear his proportion of expenses voluntarily incurred " in and
about the defence, safeguard and recovery " of the insured
subject. But that has been held to be mistaken by the House of
Lords (Ailchisonv. Lohre, 1879,4 A.C. 7SS)- Another view is that
the underwriter impliedly undertakes to repay sums which the
law may require the assured to pay towards averting losses which
would, by the contract, fall upon the underwriter. Expenses
voluntarily incurred by the assured with that object are expressly
made repayable by the sue and labour clause of the policy. It
might well be implied that payments compulsorily required
from the assured by law for contributions to G.A., or as salvage
for services by salvors, will be undertaken or repaid by the
underwriter, the service being for his benefit. But the decision
in Ailchison v. Lohre negatives this ground also. The claim was
against underwriters on a ship which had been so damaged that
the cost of repairs had exceeded her insured value. A claim for
the ship's contribution to certain salvage and G.A. expenses
which had been incurred, over and above the cost of repairs, was
disallowed. The view seems to have been that the insurer is
liable for salvage and G.A. payments as losses of the subject
insured, and therefore included in the sum insured, not as
collateral payments made on his behalf. This bases the claim
against the insurer upon a fiction, for there has been no loss of

AVERNUS— AVERROES

the subject insured; in fact, the payment has been for averting
such a loss. And it suggests that the insurer is not liable for
salvage where the policy is free of particular average, which
does not accord with practice.

An important question as to an insurer's liability for G.A.
arose in the case of the Brigella (1893, P. 189), where a shipowner
had incurred expenses which would have been the subject of
G.A. contributions, but that he alone was interested in the
voyage. There were no contributories. He claimed from the
insurers of the ship what would have been the ship's G.A.
contribution had there been other persons to contribute in respect
of freight or cargo. The claim was disallowed on the ground
that there could be no G.A. in such circumstances, and therefore
no basis for a claim against the insurer. The liability of the
insurer was thus made to depend, not upon the character of the
loss, but upon the fact or possibility of contribution. But this
was not followed in Montgomery v. Indemnity Mutual M. I. Co.
(1901, i K.B. 147). There ship, freight and cargo all belonged
to the same person. He had insured the cargo but not the ship.
The cargo underwriters were held liable to pay a contribution
to damage done to the ship by cutting away masts for the
general safety. The loss was in theory spread over all the
interests at risk, and they had undertaken to bear the cargo's
share of such losses. Their liability did not depend upon the
accident of whether the interests all belonged to one person or
not. This agrees with the view taken in the United States.

As to Particular Average, see under INSURANCE: Marine.

AUTHORITIES. — Lowndes on General Average (4th ed., London,
1888); Abbott's Merchant Ships and Seamen (l4th ed., London,
1901); Arnould's Marine Insurance (7th ed., London, 1901);
Carver's Carriage by Sea (4th ed., London, 1905). (T. G. C.)

AVERNUS, a lake of Campania, Italy, about i£ m. N. of
Baiae. It is an old volcanic crater, nearly 2 m. in circumference,
now, as in Roman times, filled with water. Its depth is 213 ft.,
and its height above sea-level 35 ft.; it has no natural outlet.
In ancient times it was surrounded by dense forests, and was the
centre of many legends. It was represented as the entrance
by which both Odysseus and Aeneas descended to the infernal
regions, and as the abode of the Cimmerii. Its Greek name,
"Aopvos, was explained to mean that no bird could fly across it.
Hannibal made a pilgrimage to it in 214 B.C. Agrippa in 37 B.C.
converted it into a naval harbour, the Portus lulius; joining
it to the Lacus Lucrinus by a canal, and connecting the latter
with the sea, he reduced the distance to Cumae by boring a tunnel
over | m. in length, now called Grotta della Pace, through the hill
on the north-west side of Lake Avernus. After Sextus Pompeius
had been subdued, the chief naval harbour was transferred to
Misenum. Nero's works for his proposed canal from Baiae to
the Tiber (A.D. 64) seem to have begun near Lake Avernus;
indeed, according to one theory, the Grotta della Pace would
be a portion of this canal. On the east side of the lake are
remains of baths, including a great octagonal hall known as the
Temple of Apollo, built of brickwork, and belonging to the
ist century. The so-called Grotto of the Cumaean Sibyl, on
the south side, is a rock-cut passage, ventilated by vertical
apertures, possibly a part of the works connected with the naval
harbour. To the south-east of the lake is the Monte Nuovo, a
volcanic hill upheaved in 1538, with a deep extinct crater in the
centre. To the south is the Lacus Lucrinus.

See J. Beloch, Campanien (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890), pp. 168
seq. (T. As.)

AVERROES [Abul-Walld Muhammad ibn- Ahmad Ibn-
Muhammad ibn-Rushd] (1126-1198), Arabian philosopher, was
born at Cordova. His early life was occupied in mastering the
curriculum of theology, jurisprudence, mathematics, medicine
and philosophy, under the approved teachers of the time. The
years of his prime fell during the last period of Mahommedan
rule in Spain under the Almohades (q.v.). It was Ibn-Tufail
(Abubacer), the philosophic vizier of Yusef, who introduced
Averroes to that prince, and Avenzoar (Ibn-Zuhr), the greatest
of Moslem physicians, was his friend. Averroes, who was
versed in the Malekite system of law, was made cadi of Seville
(1169), and in similar appointments the next twenty-five years

of his life were passed. We find him at different periods in
Seville, Cordova and Morocco, probably as physician to Yusef
al-Mansur, who took pleasure in engaging him in discussions on
the theories of philosophy and their bearings on the faith of
Islam. But science and free thought then, as now, in Islam,
depended almost solely on the tastes of the wealthy and the
favour of the monarch. The ignorant fanaticism of the multitude
viewed speculative studies with deep dislike and distrust, and
deemed any one a Zendik (infidel) who did not rest content with
the natural science of the Koran. These smouldering hatreds
burst into open flame about the year 1195. Averroes was
accused of heretical opinions and pursuits, stripped of his
honours, and banished to a place near Cordova, where his
actions were closely watched. At the same time efforts were
made to stamp out all liberal culture in Andalusia, so far as
it went beyond the little medicine, arithmetic and astionomy
required for practical life. But the storm soon passed. Averroes
was recalled to Morocco when the transient passion of the
people had been satisfied, and for a brief period survived his
restoration to honour. He died in the year before his patron,
al-Mansur, with whom (in 1199) the political power of the
Moslems came to an end, as did the culture of liberal science
with Averroes. The philosopher left several sons, some of whom
became jurists like his own grandfather. One of them has left
an essay, expounding his father's theory of the intellect The
personal character of Averroes is known to us only in a general
way, and as we can gather it from his writings. His clear,
exhaustive and dignified style of treatment evidences the
rectitude and nobility of the man. In the histories of his own
nation he has little place; the renown which spread in his
lifetime to the East ceased with his death, and he left no school.
Yet, from a note in a manuscript, we know that he had intelligent
readers in Spain more than a century afterwards. His historic
fame came from the Christian Schoolmen, whom he almost
initiated into the system of Aristotle, and who, but vaguely
discerning the expositors who preceded, admired in his commen-
taries the accumulated results of two centuries of labours.

The literary works of Averroes include treatises on juris-
prudence, grammar, astronomy, medicine and philosophy.
In 1859 a work of Averroes was for the. first time published
in Arabic by the Bavarian Academy, and a German translation
appeared in 1875 by the editor, J. Miiller. It is a treatise en-
titled Philosophy and Theology, and, with the exception of a
German version of the essay on the conjunction of the intellect
with man, is the first translation which enables the non-Semitic
scholar to form any adequate idea of Averroes. The Latin
translations of most of his works are barbarous and obscure.
A great part of his writings, particularly on jurisprudence and
astronomy, as well as essays on special logical subjects, prolego-
mena to philosophy, criticisms on Avicenna and Alfarabius
(FarabI), remain in manuscript in the Escorial and other libraries.
The Latin editions of his medical works include the Colliget (i.e.
Kulliyyat, or summary), a resume of medical science, and a
commentary on Avicenna's poem on medicine; but Averroes,
in medical renown, always stood far below Avicenna. The
Latin editions of his philosophical works comprise the Commen-
taries on Aristotle, the Deslructio Destructionis (against Ghazali),
the De Substantia Orbis and a double treatise De Animae Beati-
tudine. The Commentaries of Averroes fall under three heads : —
the larger commentaries, in which a paragraph is quoted at large,
and its clauses expounded one by one; the medium commentaries,
which cite only the first words of a section; and the paraphrases
or analyses, treatises on the subjects of the Aristotelian books.
The larger commentary was an innovation of Averroes; for
Avicenna, copied by Albertus Magnus, gave under the rubrics
furnished by Aristotle works in which, though the materials
were borrowed, the grouping was his own. The great com-
mentaries exist only for the Posterior Analytics, Physics, De
Caelo, De Anima and Metaphysics. On the History of Animals
no commentary at all exists, and Plato's Republic is substituted
for the then inaccessible Politics. The Latin editions of these
works between 1480 and 1580 number about 100. The first

AVERRUNCATOR— AVIANUS

59

appeared at Padua (1472) ; about fifty were published at Venice,
the best-known being that by the Juntas (1552-1553) >n ten
volumes folio.

See E. Renan, Averroes et I'Averroisme (2nd ed., Paris, 1861);
S. Munk, Melanges, 418-458; G. Stockl, Phil. d. Mittelalters, ii. 67-
124; Averroes (Voter und Sohri), Drei Abhandl. iiber d. Conjunction
d. separaten Intellects mil d. Menschen, trans, into German from the
Arabic version of Sam. Ben-Tibbon, by Dr J. Hercz (Berlin, 1869);
T. I. de Boer, History of Philosophy in Islam (London, 1003), ch. vi. ;
A. F. M. Mehren in Museon, vii. 613-627; viii. 1-20; Carl Brockel-
mann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar, 1898), vol. i.
pp. 461 f . See also ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY. (W. W. ; G. W. T.)

AVERRUNCATOR, a form of long shears used in arboriculture
for " averruncating " or pruning off the higher branches of trees,
&c. The word " averruncate " (from Lat. averruncare, to ward
off, remove mischief) glided into meaning to " weed the ground,"
" prune vines," &c., by a supposed derivation from the Lat.
ab, off, and eruncare, to weed out, and it was spelt " aberuncate "
to suit this ; but the New English Dictionary regards such a
derivation as impossible.

AVERSA, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Caserta, 15! m. S.S.W. by rail from Caserta, and
i2| m. N. by rail from Naples, from which there is also an electric
tramway. Pop. (1901) 23,477. Aversa was the first place in
which the Normans settled, it being granted to them in 1027
for the help which they had given to Duke Sergius of Naples
against Pandulf IV. of Capua. The Benedictine abbey of S.
Lorenzo preserves a portal of the nth century. There is also
a large lunatic asylum, founded by Joachim Murat in 1813.

AVESNES, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Nord, on the Helpe, 28 m. S.E. of
Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 5076. The town is the seat
of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber
of commerce and a communal college. Its church of St Nicholas
(i6th century) has a tower 200 ft. high, with a fine chime of bells.
The chief industry of the town is wool-spinning, and there is trade
in wood. Avesnes was founded in the i ith century, and formed
a countship which in the isth century passed to the house of
Burgundy and afterwards to that of Habsburg. In 1477 it was
destroyed by Louis XI. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659)
it came into the possession of the French, and was fortified by
Vauban. It was captured by the Prussians in 1815.

AVEYRON, a department of southern France, bounded N.
by Cantal, E. by Lozere and Card, S.W. by Tarn and W. by
Tarn-et- Garonne and Lot. Area, 3386 sq. m. Pop. (1906)
377,299. It corresponds nearly to the old district of Rouergue,
which gave its name to a countship established early in the 9th
century, and united with that of Toulouse towards the end of the
1 1 th century. The earliest known natives of this region were the
Celtic Rutheni, to whom the numerous megalithic monuments
found in the department are attributed. Aveyron lies on the
southern border of the central plateau of France. Its chief
rivers are the Lot in the north, the Aveyron in the centre and the
Tarn in the south, all tributaries of the Garonne. They flow
from east to west, following the general slope of the department,
and divide it into four zones. In the north-east, between the
Lot and its tributary the Truyere, lies the lonely pastoral plateau
of the Viadene, dominated by the volcanic mountains of Aubrac,
which form the north-eastern limit of the department and include
its highest summit (4760 ft.). Entraygues, at the confluence
of the Lot and the Truyere, is one of the many picturesque
towns of the department. Between the Lot and the Aveyron
is a belt of causses or monotonous limestone table-lands, broken
here and there by profound and beautiful gorges — a type of
scenery characteristic of Aveyron. This zone is also watered
by the Dourdou du Nord, a tributary of the Lot. The salient
feature of the region between the Tarn and the Aveyron is the
plateau of the Segala, bordered on the east by the heights of
Levezou and Palanges and traversed from east to west by the
deep valley of the Viaur, a tributary of the Aveyron. The country
south of the Tarn is occupied in great part by the huge plateau of
Larzac, which lies between the Causse Noir and the Causse St
Affrique, the three forming the south-western termination of the

C6vennes. On the Causse Noir is found the fantastic chaos of
rocks and precipices known as Montpellier-le-Vieux, resembling
the ruins of a huge city. The climate of Aveyron varies from
extreme rigour in the mountains to mildness in the sheltered
valleys ; the south wind is sometimes of great violence. Wheat,
rye and oats are the chief cereals cultivated, the soil of Aveyron
being naturally poor. Other crops are potatoes, colza, hemp
and flax. The mainstay of the agriculture of the department
is the raising of live-stock, especially of cattle of the Aubrac
breed, for which Laguiole is an important market. The wines
of Entraygues, St Georges, Bouillac and Najac have some
reputation; in the S6gala chestnuts form an important element
in the food of the peasants, and the walnut, cider-appl?, mulberry
(for the silk- worm industry), and plum are among the fruit
trees grown. The production of Roquefort cheeses is prominent
among the agricultural industries. They are made from the milk
of the large flocks of the plateau of Larzac, and the choicest
are ripened in the even temperature of the caves in the cliff
which overhangs Roquefort. The minerals found in the depart-
ment include the coal of the basins of Aubin and Rodez as well
as iron, zinc and lead. Quarries of various kinds of stone are also
worked. The chief industrial centres are Decazeville, which has
metallurgical works, and Millau, where leather-dressing and the
manufacture of gloves have attained considerable importance.
Wool-weaving and the manufacture of woollen goods, machinery,
chemicals and bricks are among the other industries.

There are five arrondissements, of which the chief towns are
Rodez, capital of the department, Espalion, Millau, St Affrique
and Villefranche, with 43 cantons and 304 communes. Rodez
is the seat of a bishopric, the diocese of which comprises the de-
partment. Aveyron belongs to the i6th military region, and to
the acadimie or educational circumscription of Toulouse. Its
court of appeal is at Montpellier. The department is traversed
by the lines both of the Orleans and Southern railways. The
more important towns are Rodez, Millau, St Affrique, Ville-
franche-de-Rouergue and Decazeville. The following are also
of interest : — Sauveterre, founded in 1281, a striking example of
the bastide (q.v.) of that period; Conques, which has a remark-
able abbey-church of the nth century like St Sernin of Toulouse
in plan and possessing a rich treasury of reliquaries, &c. ; Espalion,
where amongst other old buildings there are the remains of a
feudal stronghold and a church of the Romanesque period; Najac,
which has the ruins of a magnificent chateau of the I3th century;
and Sylvanes, with a church of the izth century, once attached
to a Cistercian abbey.

AVEZZANO, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of
Aquila, 67 m. E. of Rome by rail and 38 m. S. of Aquila by road.
Pop. (1901) 9442. It has a fine and well-preserved castle, built in
1490 by Gentile Virginio Orsini; it is square, with round towers
at the angles. Avezzano is on the main line from Rome to
Castellammare Adriatico; a branch railway diverges to Rocca-
secca, on the line from Naples to Rome. The Lago Fucino lies
1 5 m. to the east.

AVIANUS, a Latin writer of fables, placed by some critics in
the age of the Antonines, by others as late as the 6th century A.D.
He appears to have lived at Rome and to have been a heathen.
The 42 fables which bear his name are dedicated to a certain
Theodosius, whose learning is spoken of in most flattering terms.
He may possibly be Macrobius Theodosius, the author of the
Saturnalia ; some think he may be the emperor of that name.
Nearly all the fables are to be found in Babrius, who was probably
Avianus's source of inspiration, but as Babrius wrote in Greek,
and Avianus speaks of having made an elegiac version from a
rough Latin copy, probably a prose paraphrase, he was not
indebted to the original. The language and metre are on the
whole correct, in spite of deviations from classical usage,
chiefly in the management of the pentameter. The fables soon
became popular as a school-book. Promythia and epimythia
(introductions and morals) and paraphrases, and imitations were
frequent, such as the Novus Avianus of Alexander Neckam
(i2th century).

EDITIONS.— Cannegieter (1731), Lachmann (1845), Frohner (1862),

6o

AVIARY

Bahrens in Poetae Latini Minores, Ellis (1887). See Miiller, De
Phaedri et Aviani Fabulis (1875) ; Unrein, De Aviani Aetate (1885) ;
Hervieux, Les Fabulistes latins (1894); The Fables of Avian trans-
lated into Englyshe . . . by William Caxton at Westmynstre (1483).

AVIARY (from Lat. avis, a bird), called by older writers
" volary," a structure in which birds are kept in a state of
captivity. While the habit of keeping birds in cages dates from
a very remote period, it is probable that structures worthy of
being termed aviaries were first used by the ancient Romans,
chiefly for the process of fattening birds for the table. In
Varro's time, 116-127 B.C., aviaries or " ornithones " (from Gr.
Spva Spvidas, bird) were common. These consisted of two
kinds, those constructed for pleasure, in which were kept nightin-
gales and other song-birds, and those used entirely for keeping
and fattening birds for market or for the tables of their owners.
Varro himself had an aviary for song-birds exclusively, while
Lucullus combined the two classes, keeping birds both for
pleasure and as delicacies for his table. The keeping of birds
for pleasure, however, was very rarely indulged in, while it was
a common practice with poulterers and others to have large
ornithones either in the city or at Sabinum for the fattening of
thrushes and other birds for food.

Ornithones consisted merely of four high walls and a roof, and
were lighted with a few very small windows, as the birds were
considered to pine less if they could not see their free companions
outside. Water was introduced by means of pipes, and conducted
in narrow channels, and the birds were fed chiefly upon dried figs,
carefully peeled, and chewed into a pulp by persons hired to
perform this operation.

Turtle-doves were fattened in large numbers for the market
on wheat and millet, the latter being moistened with sweet wine;
but thrushes were chiefly in request, and Varro mentions one
ornithon from which no less than five thousand of these birds
were sold for the table in one season.

The habit of keeping birds in aviaries, as we understand the
term, for the sake of the pleasure they afford their owners and
for studying their habits is, however, of comparatively recent
date. The beginning of geographical research in the isth
century brought with it the desire to keep and study at home
some of the beautiful forms of bird-life which the explorers
came across, and hence it became the custom to erect aviaries
for the reception of these creatures. In the i6th century, in the
early part of which the canary-bird was introduced into Europe,
aviaries were not uncommon features of the gardens of the
wealthy, and Bacon refers to them in his essay on gardening
(1597). Elizabeth of Bohemia, the daughter of James I. of
England, when a child, had an outdoor aviary at Coombe Abbey
near Coventry, the back and roof of which were formed of
natural rock, in which were kept birds of many species from
many countries.

Within recent years the method of keeping birds in large
aviaries has received considerable attention, and it is fully
recognized that by so doing, not only do we derive great pleasure,
but our knowledge of avian habits and mode of living can
thereby be very considerably increased.

An aviary may be of almost any size, from the large cage
known, on account of its shape, as the " Crystal Palace aviary,"
to a structure as large as a church; and the term is sometimes
applied to the room of a house with the windows covered with
wire-netting; but as a rule it is used for outdoor structures,
composed principally of wire-netting supported on a framework
of either iron or woodwork. For quite hardy birds little more
than this is necessary, providing that protection is given in the
form of growing trees and shrubs, rock- work' or rough wooden
shelters. For many of the delicate species, however, which hail
from tropical countries, warmth must be provided during the
inclement months of the year, and thus a part at least of an
aviary designed for these birds must be in the form of a
wooden or brick house which can be shut up in cold weather
and artificially warmed.

The ideal aviary, probably, is that which is constructed in
two parts, viz. a well-built house for the winter, opening out

into a large wire enclosure for use in the summer months. The
doors between the two portions may be of wood or glazed. The
part intended as the winter home of the birds is best built in
brick or stone, as these materials are practically vermin-proof
and the temperature in such a building is less variable than that
in a thin wooden structure. The floor should be of concrete or
brick, and the house should be fitted with an efficient heating
apparatus from which the heat is distributed by means of hot-
water pipes. Any arrangement which would permit the escape
into the aviary of smoke or noxious fumes is to be strongly
condemned. Such a house must be well lighted, preferably by
means of skylights; but it is a mistake to have the whole roof
glazed, at least half of it should be of wood, covered with slates
or tiles. Perches consisting of branches of trees with the bark
adhering should be fixed up, and, if small birds are to be kept,
bundles of bushy twigs should be securely fixed up in corners
under the roofs.

The outer part, which will principally be used during the
summer, though it will do most birds good to be let out for a
few hours on mild winter days also, should be as large as possible,
and constructed entirely of wire-netting stretched on a frame-
work of wood or iron. If the latter material is selected, stout
gas-piping is both stronger and more easily fitted together than
solid iron rods.

If the framework be of wood, this should be creosoted, prefer-
ably under pressure, or painted with three coats of good lead
paint, the latter preservative also being used if iron is the
material selected.

The wire-netting used may be of almost any sized mesh,
according to the sized birds to be kept, but as a general rule the
smallest mesh, such as half or five-eighths of an inch, should be
used, as it is practically vermin-proof, and allows of birds of
any size being kept. Wire-netting for aviaries should be of the
best quality, and well galvanized. The new interlinked type
is less durable than the old mesh type, though perhaps it looks
somewhat neater when fixed.

Provision must be made for the entire exclusion of such
vermin as rats, stoats and weasels, which, if they were to
gain access, would commit great havoc
amongst the birds. The simplest and
most effectual method of doing this is
by sinking the wire-netting some 2 ft.
into the ground all round the aviary,
and then turning it outwards for a
distance of another foot as shown in the
annexed cut (fig. i).

The outer part of the aviary should
be turfed and planted with evergreen
and deciduous shrubs, and be provided
with some means of supplying an abun-

and

Surface

ground

FIG. i.

dance of pure water for the birds to drink and bathe in;
a gravel path should not be forgotten.

Perhaps the most useful type of aviary is that built as above
described, but with several compartments, and a passage at
the back by which any compartment may be visited without
the necessity of passing through and disturbing the birds in other
compartments. Fig. 2 represents a ground plan of an aviary
of this type divided into four compartments, each with an inner
house 10 ft. square, and an outer flight of double that area.
The outer flights are intended to be turfed, and planted with
shrubs, and the gravel path has a glazed roof above it by which
it is kept dry in wet weather. Shallow water-basins are shown,
which should be supplied by means of an underground pipe and
a cock which can be turned on from outside the aviary; and they
must be connected with a properly laid drain by means of a
waste plug and an overflow pipe.

An aviary should always be built with a southern or south-
eastern aspect, and, where possible, should be sheltered from the
north, north-east and north-west by a belt of fir-trees, high wall
or bank, to protect the birds from the biting winds from these
quarters.

When parrots of any kind are to be kept it is useless to try

AVIARY

61

to grow any kind of vegetation except grass, and even this will
be demolished unless the aviary is of considerable size. The
larger parrots will, in fact, bite to pieces not only living trees
but also the woodwork of their abode, and the only really suitable
materials for the construction of an aviary for these birds are
brick or stone and iron; and the wire-netting used must be of
the stoutest gauge or it will be torn to pieces by their strong
bills.

The feeding of birds in aviaries is, obviously, a matter of the
utmost importance, and, in order that they may have what
is most suitable, the aviculturist should find out as much as
possible of the wild life of the species he wishes to keep, or if little
or nothing is known about their mode of living, as is often the case
with rare forms, of nearly related species whose habits and food
are probably much the same, and he should endeavour to provide
food as nearly as possible resembling that which would be ob-
tained by the birds when wild. It is often, however, impossible to
supply precisely the same food as would be obtained by the birds
had they their liberty, but a substitute which suits them well can

FIG. 2. — Plan of 4-compartment Aviary for Foreign Birds,
generally be obtained. The majority of the parrot tribe subsist
principally upon various nuts, seed and fruit, while some of the
smaller parrakeets or paroquets appear to feed almost exclusively
upon the seeds of various grasses. Almost all of these are com-
paratively easy to treat in captivity, the larger ones being fed
on maize, sunflower-seed, hemp, dari, oats, canary-seed, nuts
and various ripe fruits, while the grass-parrakeets thrive re-
markably well on little besides canary-seed and green food, the
most suitable of which is grass in flower, chickweed, groundsel
and various seed-bearing weeds. But there is another large group
of parrots, the Loriidae or brush-tongued parrots, some of the
most interesting and brightly coloured of the tribe, which, when
wild, subsist principally upon the pollen and nectar of flowers,
notably the various species of Eucalyptus, the filamented tongues
of these parrots being peculiarly adapted for obtaining this.
In captivity these birds have been found to live well upon
sweetened milk-sop, which is made by pouring boiling milk upon
crumbled bread or biscuit. They frequently learn to eat seed
like other parrots, but, if fed exclusively upon this, are apt,
especially if deprived of abundance of exercise, to suffer from
fits which are usually fatal. Fruit is also readily eaten by the
lories and lorikeets, and should always be supplied.

The foreign doves and pigeons form a numerous and beautiful
group which are mostly hardy and easily kept and bred in
captivity. They are for the most part grain-feeders and require
only small corn and seeds, though a certain group, known as
the fruit-pigeons, are fed in captivity upon soft fruits, berries,
boiled potato and soaked grain.

The various finches and finch-like birds form an exceedingly
large group and comprise perhaps the most popular of foreign

aviary birds. The weaver-birds of Africa are mostly quite
hardy and very easily kept, their food consisting, for the most
part, of canary-seed. The males of these birds are, as a rule,
gorgeously attired in brilliant colours, some having long flowing
tail-feathers during the nuptial season, while in the winter their
showy dress is replaced by one of sparrow-like sombreness.
The grass-finches of Australasia contain some of the most
brilliantly coloured birds, the beautiful grass-finch (Poiphila
mirabilis) being resplendent in crimson, green, mauve, blue and
yellow. Most of these birds build their nests, and many rear
their young, successfully in outdoor aviaries, their food consisting
of canary and millet seeds, while flowering grasses provide
them with an endless source of pleasure and wholesome food.
The same treatment suits the African waxbills, many of which
are extremely beautiful, the crimson-eared waxbill or " cordon-
bleu " being one of the most lovely and frequently imported.
These little birds are somewhat delicate, especially when first
imported, and during the winter months require artificial
warmth.

There is a very large group of insectivorous and fruit-eating
birds very suitable for aviculture, but their mode of living
necessarily involves considerable care on the part of the avicul-
turist in the preparation of their food. Many birds are partially
insectivorous, feeding upon insects when these are plentiful,
and upon various seeds at other times. Numbers of species again
which, when adult, feed almost entirely upon grain, feed their
young, especially during the early stages of their existence,
upon insects; while others are exclusively insect-eaters at all
times of their lives. All of these points must be considered by
those who would succeed in keeping and breeding birds in
aviaries.

It would be almost an impossibility to keep the purely insecti-
vorous species, were it not for the fact that they can be gradually
accustomed to feed on what is known as " insectivorous " or
" insectile " food, a composition of which the principal in-
gredients generally consist of dried ants' cocoons, dried flies,
dried powdered meat, preserved yolk of egg,1 and crumb of
bread or biscuit. This is moistened with water or mixed with
mashed boiled potato, and forms a diet upon which most of the
insectivorous birds thrive. The various ingredients, or the
food ready made, can be obtained at almost any bird-fancier's
shop. Although it is a good staple diet for these birds, the
addition of mealworms, caterpillars, grubs, spiders and so forth
is often a necessity, especially for purely insectivorous species.

The fruit-eating species, such as the tanagers and sugar-birds
of the New World, require ripe fruit in abundance in addition
to a staple diet such as that above described, while for such
birds as feed largely upon earth-worms, shredded raw meat is
added with advantage.

Many of the waders make very interesting aviary birds, and
require a diet similar to that above recommended, with the addi-
tion of chopped raw meat, mealworms and any insects that can
be obtained.

Birds of prey naturally require a meat diet, which is best given
in the form of small, freshly killed mammals and birds, the fur
or feathers of which should not be removed, as they aid digestion.

The majority of wild birds, from whatever part of the world
they may come, will breed successfully in suitable aviaries
providing proper nesting sites are available. Large bundles
of brushwood, fixed up in sheltered spots, will afford accom-
modation for many kinds of birds, while some will readily build
in evergreen shrubs if these are grown in their enclosure. Small
boxes and baskets, securely fastened to the wall or roof of the

1 It has recently been stated by certain medical men that egg-
food in any form is an undesirable diet for birds, owing to its being
peculiarly adapted to the multiplication of the bacillus of septic-
aemia, a disease which is responsible for the death of many newly
imported birds. It is a significant fact, however, that insectivorous
species, which are those principally fed upon this substance, are not
nearly so susceptible to this disease as seed-eating birds which rarely
taste egg; and in spite of what has been written concerning its
harmfulness, the large majority of aviculturists use it, in both the
tresh and the preserved state, with no apparent ill effects, but
rather the reverse.

62

AVICENNA

sheltered part of an aviary, will be appropriated by such species
as naturally build in holes and crevices. Parrots, when wild,
lay their eggs in hollow trees, and occasionally in holes in rocks,
making no nest,1 but merely scraping out a slight hollow in which
to deposit the eggs. For these birds hollow logs, with small
entrance holes near the top, or boxes, varying in size according
to the size of the parrots which they are intended for, should
be supplied. In providing nesting accommodation for his
birds the aviculturist must endeavour to imitate their natural
surroundings and supply sites as nearly as possible similar to
those which the birds, to whatever order they may belong,
would naturally select.

Aviculture is a delightful pastime, but it is also far more than
this; it is of considerable scientific importance, for it admits of
the living birds being studied in a way that would be quite
impossible otherwise. There are hundreds of species of birds,
from all parts of the world, the habits of which are almost un-
known, but which may be kept without difficulty in suitable
aviaries. Many of these birds cannot be studied satisfactorily
in a wild state by reason of their shy nature and retiring habits,
not to mention their rarity and the impossibility, so far as most
people are concerned, of visiting their native haunts. In suitable
large aviaries, however, their nesting habits, courtship, display,
incubation, moult and so forth can be accurately observed and
recorded. The keeping of birds in aviaries is therefore a practice
worthy of every encouragement, so long as the aviaries are of
sufficient size and suitable design to allow of the birds exhibiting
their natural habits; for in a large aviary they will reveal the
secrets of their nature as they never would do in a cage or small
aviary. CD- S. -S.)

AVICENNA [Abu 'All al-Husain ibn 'Abdallah ibn Slna]
(980-1037), Arabian philosopher, was born at Afshena in the
district of Bokhara. His mother was a native of the place; his
father, a Persian from Balkh, filled the post of tax-collector in
the neighbouring town of Harmaitin, under Nuh II. ibn Mansur,
the Samanid amir of Bokhara. On the birth of Avicenna's
younger brother the family migrated to Bokhara, then one of
the chief cities of the Moslem world, and famous for a culture
which was older than its conquest by the Saracens. Avicenna
was put in charge of a tutor, and his precocity soon made him
the marvel of his neighbours, — as a boy of ten who knew by rote
the Koran and much Arabic poetry besides. From a green-
grocer he learnt arithmetic; and higher branches were begun
under one of those wandering scholars who gained a livelihood
by cures for the sick and lessons for the young. Under him
Avicenna read the Isagoge of Porphyry and the first propositions
of Euclid. But the pupil soon found his teacher to be but a
charlatan, and betook himself, aided by commentaries, to master
logic, geometry and the Almagest. Before he was sixteen he
not merely knew medical theory, but by gratuitous attendance
on the sick had, according to his own account, discovered new
methods of treatment. For the next year and a half he worked
at the higher philosophy, in which he encountered greater
obstacles. In such moments of baffled inquiry he would leave
his books, perform the requisite ablutions, then hie to the
mosque, and continue in prayer till light broke on his difficulties.
Deep into the night he would continue his studies, stimulating
his senses by occasional cups of wine, and even in his dreams
problems would pursue him and work out their solution. Forty
times, it is said, he read through the Metaphysics of Aristotle,
till the words were imprinted on his memory; but their meaning
was hopelessly obscure, until one day they found illumination
from the little commentary by FarabI (q.v.), which he bought
at a bookstall for the small sum of three dirhems. So great was
his joy at the discovery, thus made by help of a work from which
he had expected only mystery, that he hastened to return thanks
to God, and bestowed an alms upon the poor. Thus, by the
end of his seventeenth year his apprenticeship of study was

1 There is, however, one true nest-building parrot, the grey-
breasted parrakeet (Myopsittacus monachus), which constructs a
huge nest of twigs. The true love-birds (Agapornis) may also be
said to build nests, for they line their nest-hole with strips of pliant
bark.

concluded, and he went forth to find a market for his accomplish-
ments.

His first appointment was that of physician to the amir,
who owed him his recovery from a dangerous illness (997).
Avicenna's chief reward for this service was access to the royal
library of the Samanids (q.v.), well-known patrons of scholarship
and scholars. When the library was destroyed by fire not long
after, the enemies of Avicenna accused him of burning it, in
order for ever to conceal the sources of his knowledge. Mean-
while, he assisted his father in his financial labours, but still
found time to write some of his earliest works.

At the age of twenty-two Avicenna lost his father. The
Samanid dynasty came to its end in December 1004. Avicenna
seems to have declined the offers of Mahmud the Ghaznevid,
and proceeded westwards to Urjensh in the modern Khiva,
where the vizier, regarded as a friend of scholars, gave him a
small monthly stipend. But the pay was small, and Avicenna
wandered from place to place through the districts of Nishapur
and Merv to the borders of Khorasan, seeking an opening for
his talents. Shams al-Ma'ali Qabus, the generous ruler of
Dailam, himself a poet and a scholar, with whom he had
expected to find an asylum, was about that date (1012) starved
to death by his own revolted soldiery. Avicenna himself was
at this season stricken down by a severe illness. Finally, at
Jorjan, near the Caspian, he met with a friend, who bought near
his own house a dwelling in which Avicenna lectured on logic
and astronomy. ' For this patron several of his treatises were
written; and the commencement of his Canon of Medicine also
dates from his stay in Hyrcania.

He subsequently settled at Rai, in the vicinity of the modern
Teheran, where a son of the last amir, Majd Addaula, was
nominal ruler, under the regency of his mother. At Rai about
thirty of his shorter works are said to have been composed. But
the constant feuds which raged between the regent and her
second son, Shams Addaula, compelled the scholar to quit the
place, and after a brief sojourn at Kazwin, he passed southwards
to Hamadan, where that prince had established himself. At
first he entered into the service of a high-born lady; but ere
long the amir, hearing of his arrival, called him in as medical
attendant, and sent him back with presents to his dwelling.
Avicenna was even raised to the office of vizier; but the turbulent
soldiery, composed of Kurds and Turks, mutinied against their
nominal sovereign, and demanded that the new vizier should be
put to death. Shams Addaula consented that he should be
banished from the country. Avicenna, however, remained
hidden for forty days in a sheik's house, till a fresh attack of
illness induced the amir to restore him to his post. Even during
this perturbed time he prosecuted his studies and teaching.
Every evening extracts from his great works, the Canon and the
Sanatio, were dictated and explained to his pupils; among
whom, when the lesson was over, he spent the rest of the night
in festive enjoyment with a band of singers and players. On the
death of the amir Avicenna ceased to be vizier, and hid himself
in the house of an apothecary, where, with intense assiduity, he
continued the composition of his works. Meanwhile, he had
written to Abu Ya'far, the prefect of Isfahan, offering his
services; but the new amir of Hamadan getting to hear of this
correspondence, and discovering the place of Avicenna's con-
cealment, incarcerated him in a fortress. War meanwhile con-
tinued between the rulers of Isfahan and Hamadan; in 1024
the former captured Hamadan and its towns, and expelled the
Turkish mercenaries. When the storm had passed Avicenna
returned with the amir to Hamadan, and carried on his literary
labours; but at length, accompanied by his brother, a favourite
pupil, and two slaves, made his escape out of the city in the
dress of a Sufite ascetic. After a perilous journey they reached
Isfahan, and received an honourable welcome from the prince.
The remaining ten or twelve years of Avicenna's life were spent
in the service of Abu Ya'far 'Ala Addaula, whom he accompanied
as physician and general literary and scientific adviser, even in
his numerous campaigns. During these years he began to study
literary matters and philology, instigated, it is asserted, by

AVIENUS— AVIGNON

criticisms on his style. But amid his restless study Avicenna
never forgot his love of enjoyment. Unusual bodily vigour
enabled him to combine severe devotion to work with facile
indulgence in sensual pleasures. His passion for wine and women
was almost as well known as his learning. Versatile, light-
hearted, boastful and pleasure-loving, he contrasts with the
nobler and more intellectual character of Averroes. His bouts
of pleasure gradually weakened his constitution; a severe colic,
which seized him on the march of the army against Hamadan,
was checked by remedies so violent that Avicenna could scarcely
stand. On a similar occasion the disease returned; with
difficulty he reached Hamadan, where, finding the disease
gaining ground, he refused to keep up the regimen imposed,
and resigned himself to his fate. On his deathbed remorse
seized him; he bestowed his goods on the poor, restored unjust
gains, freed his slaves, and every third day till his death listened
to the reading of the Koran. He died in June 1037, in his fifty-
eighth year, and was buried in Hamadan.

It was mainly accident which determined that from the I2th
to the i yth century Avicenna should be the guide of medical
study in European universities, and eclipse the names of Rhazes,
Ali ibn al-Abbas and Avenzoar. His work is not essentially
different from that of his predecessors Rhazes and Ali; all
present the doctrine of Galen, and through Galen the doctrine
of Hippocrates, modified by the system of Aristotle. But the
Cdhon of Avicenna is distinguished from the Al-Hawi (Continens)
or Summary of Rhazes by its greater method, due perhaps to
the logical studies of the former, and entitling him to his surname
of Prince of the Physicians. The work has been variously
appreciated in subsequent ages, some regarding it as a treasury
of wisdom, and others, like Avenzoar, holding it useful only as
waste paper. In modern times it has been more criticized than
read. The vice of the book is excessive classification of bodily
faculties, and over-subtlety in the discrimination of diseases.
It includes five books; of which the first and second treat of
physiology, pathology and hygiene, the third and fourth deal
with the methods of treating disease, and the fifth describes
the composition and preparation of remedies. This last part
contains some contingent of personal observation. He is, like
all his countrymen, ample in the enumeration of symptoms, and
is said to be inferior to Ali in practical medicine and surgery.
He introduced into medical theory the four causes of the Peri-
patetic system. Of natural history and botany he pretends
to no special knowledge. Up to the year 1650, or thereabouts,
the Canon was still used as a'_text-book in the universities of
Louvain and Montpellier.

About ico treatises are ascribed to Avicenna. Some of them
are tracts of a few pages, others are works extending through
several volumes. The best- known amongst them, and that to
which Avicenna owed his European reputation, is the Canon
of Medicine; an Arabic edition of it appeared at Rome in 1593,
and a Hebrew version at Naples in 1491. Of the Latin version
there were about thirty editions, founded on the original trans-
lation by Gerard of Cremona. The 1 5th century has the honour
of composing the great commentary on the text of the Canon,
grouping around it all that theory had imagined, and all that
practice had observed. Other medical works translated into
Latin are the Medicamenta Cordialia, Canticum de Medicina,
Tractatus de Syrupo Acetoso. Scarcely any member of the
Arabian circle of the sciences, including theology, philology,
mathematics, astronomy, physics and music, was left un-
touched by the treatises of Avicenna, many of which probably
varied little, except in being commissioned by a different patron
and having a different form or extent. He wrote at least one
treatise on alchemy, but several others have been falsely attri-
buted to him. His book on animals was translated by Michael
Scot. His Logic, Metaphysics, Physics, De Caelo, are treatises
giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine. The Logic
and Metaphysics have been printed more than once, the latter,
e.g., at Venice in 1493, 1495 and 1 546. Some of his shorter essays
on medicine, logic, &c., take a poetical form (the poem on logic
was published by Schmoelders in 1836). Two encyclopaedic

treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The
larger, Al-ShiJd? (Sanatio), exists nearly complete in manuscript
in the Bodleian library and elsewhere; part of it on the De
Anima appeared at Pa via (1490) as the Liber Sextus Naturalium,
and the long account of Avicenna's philosophy given by Shah-
rastani seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a
reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is
known as the An-najal (Liber alio). The Latin editions of part
of these works have been modified by the corrections which the
monkish editors confess that they applied. There is also a
Philosophia Orientalis, mentioned by Roger Bacon, and now
lost, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone.

For Avicenna's life, see Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary,
translated by McG. de Slane (1842); F. Wustenfeld's Geschichte der
arabischen Aerzte 'und Naturforscher (Gottingen, 1840). For his
medicine, see Sprengel, Histoire de la, Medecine; and for his philo-
sophy, see Shahrastani, German trans, vol. ii. 213-332; K. Prantl,
Geschichte der Logik, ii. 318-361; A. Stockl, Phil. d. Mittelallers, ii.
23-58; S. Munk, Melanges, 352-366; B. Haneberg in the Abhand-
luneen der philos.-philolog. Class, der bayerischen Academie (1867);
and Carra de Vaux, Avicenne (Paris, 1900). For list of extant works
see C. Brockelmaim's Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar,
1898), vol. i. pp. 452-458. (W. W.; G. W. T.)

AVIENUS, RUFIUS FESTUS, a Roman aristocrat and poet,
of Vulsinii in Etruria, who flourished during the second half of
the 4th century A.D. He was probably proconsul of Africa (366)
arid of Achaia (372). Avienus was a pagan and a staunch
supporter of the old religion. He translated the ^aivofieva of
Aratus and paraphrased the Htpiiiyriffu of Dionysius under
the title of Descriptio Orbis Terrarum, both in hexameters.
He also compiled a description, in iambic trimeters, of the coasts
of the Mediterranean, Caspian and Black Seas in several books,
of which only a fragment of the first is extant. He also epitomized
Livy and Virgil's Aeneid in the same metre, but these works are
lost. Some minor poems are found under his name in anthologies,
e.g. a humorous request to one Favianus for some pomegranates
for medicinal purposes. •

AVIGLIANA, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
Turin, 14 m. W. by rail from the town of Turin. Pop. (1901)
4629. It has medieval buildings of some interest, but is mainly
remarkable for its large dynamite factory, employing over
500 workman.

AVIGNON, a city of south-eastern France, capital of the
department of Vaucluse, 143 m. S. of Lyons on the railway
between that city and Marseilles. Pop. (1906) 35,356. Avignon,
which lies on the left bank of the Rhone, a few miles above its
confluence with the Durance, occupies a large oval-shaped area
not fully populated, and covered in great part by parks and
gardens. A suspension bridge leads over the river to Villeneuve-
les-Avignon (<?.«.), and a little higher up, a picturesque ruined
bridge of the I2th century, the Pont Saint-Ben6zet, projects into
the stream. Only four of the eighteen piles are left; on one of
them stands the chapel of Saint-Ben6zet, a small Romanesque
building. Avignon is still encircled by the ramparts built by
the popes in the i4th century, which offer one of the finest
examples of medieval fortification in existence. The walls,
which are of great strength, are surmounted by machicolated
battlements, flanked at intervals by thirty-nine massive towers
and pierced by several gateways, three of which date from the
I4th century. The whole is surrounded by a line of pleasant
boulevards. The life of the town is almost confined to the
Place de l'H6tel de Ville and the Cours de la R6publique, which
leads out of it and extends to the ramparts. Elsewhere the streets
are narrow, quiet, and, for the most part, badly paved. At
the northern extremity of the town a precipitous rock, the Rocher
des Doms, rises from the river's edge and forms a plateau stretch-
ing southwards nearly to the Place de l'H6tel de Ville. Its
summit is occupied by a public garden and, to the south of this,
by the cathedral of Notre-Dame des Doms and the Palace of
the Popes. The cathedral is a Romanesque building, mainly
of the 1 2th century, the most prominent feature of which is the
gilded statue of the Virgin which surmounts the western tower.
Among the many works of art in the interior, the most beautiful
is the mausoleum of Pope John XXII., a masterpiece of Gothic

AVILA

carving of the -I4th century. The cathedral is almost dwarfed
by the Palace of the Popes, a sombre assemblage of buildings,
which rises at its side and covers a space of more than ij acres.
Begun in 1316 by John XXII., it was continued by succeeding
popes until 1370, and is in the Gothic style; in its construction
everything has been sacrificed to strength, and though the effect
is imposing, the place has the aspect rather of a fortress than
of a palace. It was for long used as a barracks and prison,
to the exigencies of which the fine apartments were ruthlessly
adapted, but it is now municipal property. Among the minor
churches of the town are St Pierre, which has a graceful facade
and richly carved doors, St Didier and St Agricol, all three of
Gothic architecture. The most notable of the civil buildings are
the h&tel de ville, a modern building with a belfry of the i4th
century, and the old H6tel des Monnaies, the papal mint which
was built in 1610 and is now used as a music-school. The Calvet
Museum, so named after F. Calvet, physician, who in 1810 left
his collections to the town, is rich in inscriptions, bronzes, glass
and other antiquities, and in sculptures and paintings. The
library has over 140,000 volumes. The town has a statue of
a Persian, Jean Althen, who in 1765 introduced the culture of
the madder plant, which long formed the staple and is still an
important branch of local trade. In 1873 John Stuart Mill died at
Avignon, and is buried in the cemetery. For the connexion of
Petrarch with the town see PETRARCH.

Avignon is subject to violent winds, of which the most dis-
astrous is the mistral. The popular proverb is, however, some-
what exaggerated, Avenio venlosa, sine venlo venenosa, cum vento
faslidiosa (windy Avignon, pest-ridden when there is no wind,
wind-pestered when there is).

Avignon is the seat of an archbishop and has tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a council of trade-arbitrators, a lycee,
and training college, a chamber of commerce and a branch of
the Bank of France. It is in the midst of' a fertile district, in
the products of which it has a large trade, and has flour-mills,
distilleries, oil-works and leather-works, manufactures soap,
chemicals and liquorice, and is well known for its sarsanet and
other fabrics.

Avignon (Avenio) was an important town of the Gallic tribe
of the Cavares, and under the Romans one of the leading cities
of Gallia Narbonensis. Severely harassed during the barbarian
invasions and by the Saracens, it was, in later times, attached
successively to the kingdoms of Burgundy and of Aries and to
the domains of the counts of Provence and of Toulouse and of
Forcalquier. At the end of the 1 2 th century it became a republic,
but in 1226 was taken and dismantled by Louis VIII. as punish-
ment for its support of the Albigenses, and in 1251 was forced
to submit to the counts of Toulouse and Provence. In 1309
the city was chosen by Clement V. as his residence, and from
that time till 1377 was the papal seat. In 1348 the city was sold
by Joanna, countess of Provence, to Clement VI. After Gregory
XI. had migrated to Rome, two antipopes, Clement VII. and
Benedict XIII., resided at Avignon, from which the latter was
expelled in 1408. The town remained in the possession of the
popes, who governed it by means of legates, till its annexation
by the National Assembly in 1791, though during this interval
several kings of France made efforts to unite it with their
dominions. In 1791 conflicts between the adherents of the
Papacy and the Republicans led to much bloodshed. In 1815
Marshal Brune was assassinated in the town by the adherents
of the royalist party. The bishopric, founded in the 3rd century,
became an archbishopric in 1475.

See Fantoni Castrucci, Istoria delta citta d'Avignone e del Contado
Venesino (Venice, 1678); J. B. Jpudou, Histoire des souverains
pontifes qui ont siege a Avignon (Avignon, 1855); A. Canron, Guide
de Vetranger dans la ville d' Avignon et ses environs (Avignon, 1858) ;
J. F. Andre, Histoire de la Papaute a Avignon (Avignon, 1887).

AVILA, GIL GONZALEZ DE (c. 1577-1658), Spanish bio-
grapher and antiquary, was born and died at Avila. He was
made historiographer of Castile in 1612, and of the Indies in
1641. Of his numerous works, the most valuable are his Teatro
de las Grandezas des Madrid (Madrid, 1623, sqq.), and his Teatro
Eclesiastico, descriptive of the metropolitan churches and

cathedrals of Castile, with lives of the prelates (Madrid, 1645-
1653, 4 vols. 4to).

AVILA, a province of central Spain, one of the modern divisions
of the kingdom of Old Castile; bounded on the N. by Valladolid,
E. by Segovia and Madrid, S. by Toledo and Caceres, and W.
by Salamanca. Pop. (1900) 200,457; area, 2570 sq. m. Avila
is naturally divided into two sections, differing completely in
soil, climate, productions and social economy. The northern
portion is generally level; the soil is of indifferent quality,
strong and marly in a few places, but rocky in all the valleys of
the Sierra de Avila; and the climate alternates from severe
cold in winter to extreme heat in summer. The population
of this part is mainly agricultural. The southern division is one
mass of rugged granitic sierras, interspersed, however, with
sheltered and well-watered valleys, abounding with rich vegeta-
tion. The winter here, especially in the elevated region of the
Paramera and the waste lands of Avila, is long and severe, but
the climate is not unhealthy. In this region stock-breeding
is an important industry. The principal mountain chains are
the Guadarrama, separating this province from Madrid; the
Paramera and Sierra de Avila, west of the Guadarrama; and
the vast wall of the Sierra de Credos along the southern frontier,
where its outstanding peaks rise to 6000 or even 8000 ft. The
ridges which ramify from the Paramera are covered with valuable
forests of beeches, oaks and firs, presenting a striking contrast
to the bare peaks of the Sierra de Credos. The principal rivers
are the Alberche and Tietar, belonging to the basin of the Tagus,
and the Tormes, Trabancos and Adaja, belonging to that of the
Douro. The mountains contain silver, copper, iron, lead and
coal, but their mineral wealth has been exaggerated, and at the
beginning of the 2oth century mining had practically been
abandoned. Quarries of fine marble and jasper exist in the
district of Arenas. The province declined in wealth and popula-
tion during the i8th and I9th centuries, a result due less to the
want of activity on the part of the inhabitants than to the
oppressive manorial and feudal rights and the strict laws of
entail and mortmain, which acted as barriers to progress.

Towards the close of this period many improvements were
introduced, although the want of irrigation is still keenly felt.
Wide tracts of waste land were planted with pinewoods by the
ducal house of Medina Sidonia. The main roads are fairly good;
and Avila, the capital, is connected by rail with Salamanca.
Valladolid and Madrid; but in many parts of the province
the means of communication are defective. Except Avila there
are no important towns. The principal production is the wool
of the merino sheep, which at one time yielded an immense
revenue. Game is plentiful, and the rivers abound in fish,
specially trout. Olives, chestnuts and grapes are grown, and
silk-worms are kept. There is little trade, and the manufactures
are few, consisting chiefly of copper utensils, lime, soap, cloth,
paper and combs. The state of elementary education is com-
paratively good, rather more than two-thirds of the population
being able to read and write, and the ratio of crime is proportion-
ately low.

AVILA (anc. Abula or Avela), the capital of the province
described above; on the right bank of the river Adaja, 54 m.
W. by N. of Madrid, by the Madrid-Valladolid railway. Pop.
(IQOO) 11,885. The city is built on the flat summit of a rocky
hill, which rises abruptly in the midst of a veritable wilderness;
a brown, arid, treeless table-land, strewn with immense grey
boulders, and shut in by lofty mountains. The ancient walls
of Avila, constructed of brown granite, and surmounted by a
breastwork, with eighty-six towers and nine gateways, are still
in excellent repair; but a large part of the city lies beyond
their circuit. Avila is the seat of a bishop, and contains several
ecclesiastical buildings of high interest. The Gothic cathedral,
said by tradition to date from 1107, but probably of i3th or
I4th century workmanship, has the appearance of a fortress,
with embattled walls and two solid towers. It contains many
interesting sculptures and paintings, besides one especially fine
silver pyx, the work of Juan de Arphe, dating from 1571. The
churches of San Vicente, San Pedro, Santo Tomas and San

AVILA Y ZUNIGA— AVLONA

Segundo are, in their main features, Romanesque of the isth
century, although parts of the beautiful San Vicente, and of
San Pedro, may be as old as the I2th century. Especially
noteworthy is the marble monument in Santo Tomas, carved by
the 15th-century Florentine sculptor Domenico Fancelli, over
the tomb of Prince John (d. 1497), the only son of Ferdinand
and Isabella. The convent and church of Santa Teresa mark
the supposed birthplace of the saint whose name they bear
(c. 1515-1582). Avila also possesses an old Moorish castle
(alcazar) used as barracks, a foundling hospital, infirmary,
military academy, and training schools for teachers of both
sexes. From 1482 to 1807 it was also the seat of a university.
It has a considerable trade in agricultural products, leather,
pottery, hats, linen and cotton goods.

For the local history see V. Picatoste, Tradiciones de Avila
(Madrid, 1888) ; and L. Ariz, Historia de las yandezas de . . . Avila
(Alcala de Henares, 1607).

AVILA Y ZUNIGA, LUIS DE (c.i4OO - c. 1560), Spanish
historian, was born at Placentia. He was probably of low
origin, but married a wealthy heiress of the family of Zuniga,
whose name he added to his own. He rose rapidly in the favour
of the emperor Charles V., served as ambassador to Rome, and
was made grand commander of the order of the Knights of
Alcantara. He accompanied the emperor to Africa in 1541,
and having served during the war of the league of Schmalkalden,
wrote a history of this war entitled Commentaries de la guerra
de Alemana, hecha de Carlos V enelano de 1546 y 1547. This
was first printed in 1548, and becoming very popular was
translated into French, Dutch, German, Italian and Latin.
As may be expected from the author's intimacy with Charles,
the book is very partial to the emperor, and its misrepresentations
have been severely criticized.

AVILES, PEDRO MENENDEZ DE (1519-1574), Spanish
seaman, founder of St Augustine, Florida, was born at Aviles
in Asturias on the isth of February 1519. His family were
gentry, and he was one of nineteen brothers and sisters. At
the age of fourteen he ran away to sea, and was engaged till he
was thirty in a life of adventure as a corsair. In 1549 during
peace between France and Spain he was commissioned by the
emperor Charles V. to clear the north coast of Spain and the
Canaries of French pirates. In 1554 he was appointed captain-
general of the " flota " or convoy which carried the trade between
Spain and America. The appointment was made by the emperor
over the head and against the will of the Casa de Contra tacion,
or governing board of the American trade. In this year, and
before he sailed to America, Aviles accompanied the prince of
Spain, afterwards Philip II., to England, where he had gone to
marry Queen Mary. As commander of the flota he displayed a
diligence, and achieved a degree of success in bringing back
treasure, which earned him the hearty approval of the emperor.
But his devotion to the imperial service, and his steady refusal
to receive bribes as the reward for permitting breaches of the
regulations, made him unpopular with the merchants, while
his high-handed ways offended the Casa de Contratacion. Re-
appointed commander in 1557, and knowing the hostility of the
Casa, he applied for service elsewhere. The war with France in
which Spain and England were allies was then in progress, and
until the close of 1559 ample occupation was found for Aviles in
bringing money and recruits from Spain to Flanders. When peace
was restored he commanded the fleet which brought Philip II.
back from the Low Countries to Spain. In 1560 he was again
appointed to command the flota, and he made a most successful
voyage to America and back, in that and the following year.
His relations with the Casa de Contratacion were, however,
as strained as ever. On his return from another voyage in
1563 he was arrested by order of the Casa, and was detained in
prison for twenty months. What the charges brought against
him were is not known. Aviles in a letter to the king avows
his innocence, and he was finally discharged by the judges,
but not until they had received two peremptory orders from the
king to come to a decision.

On his release he prepared to sail to the Bermudas to seek for

m. 3

his son Juan, who had been shipwrecked in the previous year.
At that time the French Huguenots were engaged in endeavour-
ing to plant a colony in Florida. As the country had been
explored by the Spaniards they claimed it as theirs, and its
position on the track of the home-coming trade of Mexico rendered
its possession by any other power highly dangerous. Philip II.
endeavoured to avert the peril by making an " asienlo" or contract
with Aviles, by which he advanced 15,000 ducats to the seaman,
and constituted him proprietor of any colony which he could
establish in Florida, on condition that the money was repaid.
The contract was signed on the 2oth of March 1565. Avil6s
sailed on the 28th of July of the same year with one vessel of 600
tons, ten sloops and 1 500 men. On the 28th of August he entered
and named the Bay of St Augustine, and began a fort there.
He took the French post of Fort Caroline on the 2oth of
September 1565, and in October exterminated a body of French-
men who, under the Huguenot Jean Ribault, had arrived on the
coast of Florida to relieve their colony. The Spanish commander,
after slaying nearly all his prisoners, hung their bodies on trees,
with the inscription, ," Not as Frenchmen but as Lutherans." A
French sea-captain named Dominique de Gourgues revenged the
massacre by capturing in 1568 Fort San Mateo (as the Spanish
had renamed Fort Caroline), and hanging the garrison, with
the inscription, " Not as Spaniards but as murderers." Till
1567 Aviles remained in Florida, busy with his colony. In
that year he returned to Spain. He made one more voyage to
Florida, and died on the 1 7th of September 1 5 74. Aviles married
Maria de Solis, when very young, and left three daughters. His
letters prove him to have been a pious and high-minded officer,
who never imagined that he could be supposed by any honest
man to have gone too far in massacring the Frenchmen, whom he
regarded as pirates and heretics.

See The Spanish Settlements within the Present Limits of the
United States, Florida, 1562-1574, by Woodbury Lowery (New
York, 1905). (D. H.)

AVILES, or SAN NICOLAS DE AVILES (the Roman Flavionavia) ,
a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on the
Bay of Aviles, a winding inlet of the Bay of Biscay, 24 m. by rail
W. of Gij6n. Pop. (1900) 12,763. Aviles is a picturesque and
old-fashioned town, containing several ancient palaces and
Gothic churches. The bay, which is crossed by a fine bridge at
its narrow landward extremity, is the headquarters of a fishing
fleet, and a port of call for many coasting vessels. Coal from the
Oviedo mines is exported coastwise, and in 1904 the shipments
from Aviles for the first time exceeded those from Gij6n, reaching
a total of more than 290,000 tons. Glass and coarse linen and
woollen stuffs are manufactured; and there are valuable stone
quarries in the neighbourhood.

AVIZANDUM (from Late Lat. avizare, to consider), a Scots
law term; the judge " makes avizandum with a cause," i.e. takes
time to consider his judgment.

AVLONA (anc. Aulon; Ital. Valona; Alb. Vliona), a town
and seaport of Albania, Turkey, in the vilayet of lannina. Pop.
( 1 900) about 6000. Avlona occupies an eminence near the Gulf
of Avlona, an inlet of the Adriatic, almost surrounded by moun-
tains. The port is the best on the Albanian coast, and the nearest
to Italy. It is protected by the island of Saseno, the ancient
Saso, and by Cape Glossa, the northernmost headland of the
Acroceraunian mountains. It is regularly visited by steamers
from Trieste, Fiume, Brindisi, and other Austro-Hungarian and
Italian ports, as well as by many small Greek and Turkish
coasters. The cable and telegraph line from Otranto, in Italy,
to Constantinople, has an important station here. The town is
about ij m. from the sea, and has rather a pleasant appearance
with its minarets and its palace, surrounded with gardens and
olive-groves. Valonia, a material largely used by tanners, is
the pericarp of an acorn obtained in the neighbouring oak-
woods, and derives its name from Valona. The surrounding
district is mainly agricultural and pastoral, producing oats, maize,
cotton, olive oil, cattle, sheep, skins, hides and butter. All
these commodities are exported in considerable quantities, besides
bitumen, which is obtained from a mine worked by a French

66

AVOCA— AVON

company. The imports are woollen and cotton piece-goods,
metals and petroleum.

Avlona played an important part in the wars between the
Normans and the Byzantines, during the 1 1 th and 1 2th centuries.
In 1464 it was taken by the Ottomans; and after being in
Venetian possession in 1690, was restored to them in 1691. In
1851 it suffered severely from an earthquake.

AVOCA, or OVOCA, VALE OF, a mountain glen of county
Wicklow, Ireland, in the south-eastern part of the county,
formed by the junction of the small rivers Avonmore and Avon-
beg, which, rising in the central highlands of the county, form
with their united waters the Ovoca river, flowing south and
south-east to the Irish Sea at Arklow. The vale would doubtless
rank only as one among the many beautiful glens of the district,
but that it has obtained a lasting celebrity through one of the
Irish Melodies of the poet Thomas Moore, in which its praises
are sung. It is through this song that the form " Avoca " is
most familiar, although the name is locally spelt " Ovoca."
The glen is narrow and densely wooded. Its beauty is somewhat
marred by the presence of lead and copper mines, and by the
main line of the Dublin & South Eastern railway, on which
Ovoca station, midway in the vale, is 42! m. south of Dublin.
Of the two " meetings of the waters " (the upper, of the Avon-
more and Avonbeg, and the lower, of the Aughrim with the
Ovoca) the upper, near the fine seat of Castle Howard, is
that which inspired the poet. At Avondale, above the upper
" meeting," by the Avonmore, Charles Stewart Parnell was
born.

AVOCADO PEAR, the fruit of the tree Persea gratissima,
which grows in the West Indies and elsewhere; the flesh is of a
soft and buttery consistency and highly esteemed. The name
avocado, the Spanish for " advocate," is a sound-substitute for
the Aztec ahuacatl; it is also corrupted into " alliga tor-pear."
Avocato, avigato, abbogada are variants.

AVOGADRO, AMEDEO, CONTE Di QUAREGNA (1776-1856),
Italian physicist, was born at Turin on the gth of June 1776, and
died there on the 9th of July 1856. He was for many years
professor of higher physics in Turin University. He published
many physical memoirs on electricity, the dilatation of liquids
by heat, specific heats, capillary attraction, atomic volumes &c.
as well as a treatise in 4 volumes on Fisica di corpi ponderabili
(1837-1841). But he is chiefly remembered for his " Essai d'une
maniere de determiner les masses relatives des molecules eldmen-
taires des corps, et les proportions selon lesquelles elles entrent
dans les combinaisons " (Journ. de Phys., 1811), in which he
enunciated the hypothesis known by his name (Avogadro's
rule) that under the same conditions of temperature and pressure
equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of smallest
particles or molecules, whether those particles consist of single
atoms or are composed of two or more atoms of the same or
different kinds.

AVOIDANCE (from " avoid," properly to make empty or void,
in current usage, to keep away from, to shun; the word " avoid "
is adaipted from the O. Fr. esvuidier or evider, to empty out,
wide, modern vide, empty, connected with Lat. vacuus), the
action of making empty, void or null, hence, in law, invalidation,
annulment (see CONFESSION AND AVOIDANCE) ; also the becoming
void or vacant, hence in ecclesiastical law a term signifying the
vacancy of a benefice — that it is void of an incumbent. In general
use, the word means the action of keeping away from anything,
' shunning or avoiding.

AVOIRDUPOIS, or AVERDUPOIS (from the French avoir de pois,
goods of weight), the name of a system of weights used in Great
Britain and America for all commodities except the precious
metals, gems and medicines. The foundation of the system is
the grain. A cubic inch of water weighs 252-458 grains. Of this
grain 7000 now (see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES) make a pound
avoirdupois. This pound is divided into 16 oz., and these
ounces into 16 drachms.

Avoirdupois Weight.

Drachm, i6=ounce i6=pound, i4=stonc, 2 = quarter, 4=bundred, 2o=ton.
27'3 Pains 437's 7000 98,000 196,000 grs. 1128) 2240 ft.

AVON, the name of several rivers in England and elsewhere.
The word is Celtic, appearing in Welsh (very frequently) as afon,
in Manx as aon, and in Gaelic as abhuinn (pronounced avain),
and is radically identical with the Sanskrit ap, water, and the Lat.
aqua and amnis. The root appears more or less disguised in a
vast number of river names all over the Celtic area in Europe.
Thus, besides such forms as Evan, Aune, Anne, Ive, Auney, Inney,
&c., in the British Islands, A/, Awn, Avon, Aune appear in
Brittany and elsewhere in France, Avenza and Avens in Italy,
Avia in Portugal, and Avono in Spain; while the terminal
syllable of a large proportion of the Latinized names of French
rivers, such as the Sequana, the Matrona and the Garumna,
seems originally to have been the same word. The names
Punjab, Doafi, &c., show the root in a clearer shape.

In England the following are the principal rivers of this name.

1. The EAST or HAMPSHIRE AVON rises in Wiltshire south of
Marlborough, and watering the Vale of Pewsey collects feeders
from the high downs between Marlborough and Devizes. Breach-
ing the high ground of Salisbury Plain, it passes Amesbury, and
following a very sinuous course reaches Salisbury. Here it
receives on the east bank the waters of the Bourne, and on the
west those of the Wylye. With a more direct course, and in a
widening, fertile valley it continues past Downton, Fording-
bridge and Ringwood, skirting the New Forest on the west, to
Christchurch, where it receives the Stour from the west, and 2\ m.
lower enters the English Channel through the broad but narrow-
mouthed Christchurch harbour. The length, excluding lesser
sinuosities, is about 60 m., Salisbury being 35 m. above the
mouth. The total fall is rather over 500 ft., and that from
Salisbury about 140 ft. The river is of no commercial value for
navigation. It abounds in loach, and there are valuable salmon
fisheries. The drainage area is 1132 sq. m.

2. The LOWER or BRISTOL AVON rises on the eastern slope of
the Cotteswold Hills in Gloucestershire, collecting the waters of
several streams south of Tetbury and east of Malmesbury. It
flows east and south in a wide curve, through a broad upper
valley past Chippenham and Melksham, after which it turns
abruptly west to Bradford-on-Avon, receives the waters of the
Frome from the south, and enters the beautiful narrow valley in
which lie Bath and Bristol. Below Bristol the valley becomes
the Clifton Gorge, famous for its wooded cliffs and for the
Clifton (q.v.) suspension bridge which bestrides it. The cliffs
and woods have been so far disfigured by quarries that public
feeling was aroused, and in 1904 an " Avon Gorge Committee "
was appointed to report to the corporation of Bristol on the
possibility of preserving the beauties of the locality. The Avon
finally enters the estuary of the Severn at Avonmouth, though it
can hardly be reckoned as a tributary of that river. From Bristol
downward the river is one of the most important commercial
waterways in England, as giving access to that great port.
The Kennet and Avon Canal, between Reading and the Avon,
follows the river closely from Bradford down to Bath, where it
enters it by a descent of seven locks. The length of the river,
excluding minor sinuosities, is about 75 m., the distance from
Bradford to Bath being 10 m., thence to Bristol 1 2 m., and thence
to the mouth 8 m. The total fall is between 500 and 600 ft., but
it is only 235 ft. from Malmesbury. The drainage area is 891
sq. miles.

3. The UPPER AVON, also called the Warwickshire, and some-
times the " Shakespeare " Avon from its associations with the
poet's town of Stratford on its banks, is an eastern tributary
of the Severn. It rises near Naseby in Northamptonshire, and,
with a course of about 100 m. joins the Severn immediately
below Tewkesbury in Gloucestershire. Its early course is south-
westerly to Rugby, thereafter it runs west and south-west to
Warwick, receiving the Learn on the east. Its general direction
thereafter remains south-westerly, and it flows past Stratford-
on-Avon, receives the Stour on the south and the Arrow on the
north and thence past Evesham and Pershore to Tewkesbury.
The valley is always broad, and especially from Warwick down-
ward, through the Vale of Evesham, the scenery is very beautiful,
the rich valley being flanked by the bold Cotteswold Hills on

AVONIAN— AXE

the south and by the wooded slopes of the Arden district of
Warwickshire on the north. The view of Warwick Castle, rising
from the wooded banks of the river, is unsurpassed, and the
positions of Stratford and Evesham are admirable. The river
is locked, and carries a small trade up to Evesham, 28 m. from
Tewkesbury; the locks from Evesham upward to Stratford
(17 m.) are decayed, but the weirs, and mill-dams still higher,
afford many navigable reaches to pleasure boats. The total
fall of the river is about 500 ft.; from Rugby about 230 ft., and
from Warwick 120 ft. The river abounds in coarse fish.

Among other occurrences of the name of Avon in Great Britain
there may be noted — in England, a stream flowing south-east
from Dartmoor in Devonshire to the English Channel; in
South Wales, the stream which has its mouth at Aberavon in
Glamorganshire; in Scotland, tributaries of the Clyde, the Spey
and the Forth.

AVONIAN, in geology, the name proposed by Dr A. Vaughan
in 1905 (Q.J.G.S. vol. Ixi. p. 264) for the rocks of Lower
Carboniferous age in the Avon gorge at Bristol. The Avonian
stage appears to embrace precisely the same rocks and fossil-
zones as the earlier designation " Dinantien " (see CARBONI-
FEROUS SYSTEM) ; but its substages, being founded upon different
local conditions and a different interpretation of the zonal fossils,
do not correspond exactly with those of the French and Belgian
geologists.

Substages. ZONES. Substages.

( Kidwellian J Dibunophyllum]
[Semmula Wiseen

\Syringothyris J Dinantien

C.evedonian|Za^u j-Tournaisien

The upper Avonian (Kidwellian) is well developed about
Kidwelly in Carmarthenshire. The lower substage (Clevedonian)
is well displayed near Clevedon in Somerset.

See A. Vaughan, " The Carboniferous Limestone Series (Avonian)
of the Avon Gorge," Proc. Bristol Naturalists' Soc., 41 h series,
vol. i. pt. 2, 1906, pp. 74-168 (many plates) ; and T. F. Sibley, " On
the Carboniferous Limestone (Avonian) of the Mendip area (Somer-
set)," Q.J.G.S. vol. Ixii., 1906, pp. 324-380 (plates). (J. A. H.)

AVONMORE, BARRY YELVERTON, IST VISCOUNT (1736-
1805), Irish judge, was born in 1736. He was the eldest son of
Frank Yelverton of Blackwater, Co. Cork. Educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, he was for some years an assistant master under
Andrew Buck in the Hibernian Academy. In 1761 he married
Miss Mary Nugent, a lady of some fortune, and was then enabled
to read for the bar. He was called in 1 764, his success was rapid,
and he took silk eight years afterwards. He sat in the Irish
parliament as member successively for the boroughs of Donegal
and Carrickfergus, becoming attorney -general in 1782, but was
elevated to the bench as chief baron of the exchequer in 1783.
He was created (Irish) Baron Avonmore in 1795, and in 1800
(Irish) viscount. Among his colleagues at the Irish bar Yelver-
ton was a popular and charming companion. Of insignificant
appearance, he owed his early successes to his remarkable
eloquence, which made a great impression on his contemporaries ;
as a judge, he was inclined to take the view of the advocate
rather than that of the impartial lawyer. He gave his support
to Grattan and the Whigs during the greater part of his parlia-
mentary career, but in his latter days became identified with the
court party and voted for the union, for which his viscounty was
a reward. He had three sons and one daughter, and the title
has descended in the family.

AVRANCHES, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Manche, 87 m. S. of Cher-
bourg on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 7186. It stands on
a wooded hill, its botanical gardens commanding a fine view
westward of the bay and rock of St Michel. At the foot of the
hill flows the river S6e, which at high tide is navigable from the
sea. The town is surrounded by avenues, which occupy the site
of the ancient ramparts, remains of which are to be seen on the
north side. Avranches was from 511 to 1790 a bishop's see, held
at the end of the 1 7th century by the scholar Daniel Huet ; and its

cathedral, destroyed as insecure in the time of the first French
Revolution, was the finest in Normandy. Its site is now occupied
by an open square, one stone remaining to mark the spot where
Henry II. of England received absolution for the murder of
Thomas Becket. The churches of Notre-Dame des Champs and
St Saturnin are modern buildings in the Gothic style. The
ancient episcopal palace is now used as a court of justice; a
public library is kept in the h6tel de ville. In the public gardens
there is a statue of General Jean Marie Valhubert, killed at
Austerlitz. Avranches is seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal
of first instance and a communal college. Leather-dressing is
the chief industry; steam-sawing, brewing and dyeing are also
carried on, and horticulture flourishes in the environs. Trade
is in cider, cattle, butter, flowers and fruit, and there are salmon
and other fisheries.

Avranches, an important military station of the Romans,
was in the middle ages chief place of a county of the duchy of
Normandy. It sustained several sieges, the most noteworthy
of which, in 1591, was the result of its opposition to Henry IV.
In 1639 Avranches was the focus of the peasant revolt against
the salt-tax, known as the revolt of the Nu-pieds.

AWADIA and FADNIA, two small nomad tribes of pure Arab
blood living in the Bayuda desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,
between the wells of Jakdul and Metemma. They are often
incorrectly classed as Ja'alin. They own numbers of horses and
cattle, the former of the black Dongola breed. At the battle
of Abu Klea (i7th of January 1885) they were conspicuous for
their courage in riding against the British square.

See Anglo- Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
1905)-

AWAJI, an island belonging to Japan, situated at the eastern
entrance of the Inland Sea, having a length of 32 m., an extreme
breadth of 16 m., and an area of 218 sq. m., with a population
of about 190,000. It is separated on the south from the island
of Shikoku by the Naruto channel, through which, in certain
conditions of the tide, a remarkable torrential current is set up.
The island is celebrated for its exquisite scenery, and also for
the fact that it is traditionally reputed to have been the first
of the Japanese islands created by the deities Izanagi and
Izanami. The loftiest peak is Yuruuba-yama (1998 ft.), the most
picturesque Sen-zan (1519 ft.). Awaji is noted for a peculiar
manufacture of pottery.

AWARD (from O. Fr. ewart, or esguart, cf. " reward "), the
decision of an arbitrator. (See ARBITRATION.)

AWE, LOCH, the longest freshwater lake in Scotland, situated
in mid-Argyllshire, 1 16 ft. above the sea, with an area of nearly
1 6 sq. m. It has a N.E. to S.W. direction and is fully 23 m. long
from Kilchurn Castle to Ford, its breadth varying from J of a
mile to 3 m. at its upper end, where it takes the shape of a
crescent, one arm of which runs towards Glen Orchy, the other
to the point where the river Awe leaves the lake. The two ends
of the loch are wholly dissimilar in character, the scenery of the
upper extremity being majestic, while that of the lower half
is pastoral and tame. Of its numerous islands the best-known
is Inishail, containing ruins of a church and convent, which was
suppressed at the Reformation. At the extreme north-eastern
end of the lake, on an islet which, when the water is low,
becomes part of the mainland, stand the imposing ruins of Kil-
churn Castle. Its romantic surroundings have made this castle
a favourite subject of the landscape painter. Dalmally, about
2 m. from the loch, is one of the pleasantest villages in the High-
lands and has a great vogue in midsummer. The river Awe,
issuing from the north-western horn of the loch, affords excellent
trout and salmon fishing.

AWL (O. Eng. ael; at one time spelt nawl by a confusion
with the indefinite article before it) , a small hand-tool for piercing
holes.

AXE (O. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms,
in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek a£iir;; the
New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax "), a tool or
weapon, taking various shapes, but, when not compounded with
some distinguishing word (e.g. in " pick-axe "), generally formed

68

AXHOLME— AXOLOTL

by an edged head fixed upon a handle for striking. A " hatchet "
is a small sort of axe.

AXHOLME, an island in the north-west part of Lincolnshire,
England, lying between the rivers Trent, Idle and Don, and
isolated by drainage channels connected with these rivers.
It consists mainly of a plateau of slight elevation, rarely ex-
ceeding 100 ft., and comprises the parishes of Althorpe, Belton,
Ep worth, Haxey, Luddington, Owston and Crowle; the total
area being about 47,000 acres. At a very early period it would
appear to have been covered with forest; but this having been
in great measure destroyed, it became in great part a swamp.
In 1627 King Charles I., who was lord of the island, entered
into a contract with Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutchman, for
reclaiming the meres and marshes, and rendering them fit for
tillage. This undertaking led to the introduction of a large
number of Flemish workmen, who settled in the district, and,
in spite of the violent measures adopted by the English peasantry
to expel them, retained their ground in sufficient numbers to
affect the physical appearance and the accent of the inhabitants
to this day. The principal towns in the isle are Crowle (pop.
2769) and Epworth. The Axholme joint light railway runs north
and south through the isle, connecting Goole with Haxey
junction; and the Great Northern, Great Eastern and Great
Central lines also afford communications. The land is extremely
fertile. The name, properly Axeyholm (cf. Haxey), is hybrid,
Ax being the Celtic uisg, water; ey the Anglo-Saxon for island;
and holm the Norse word with the same signification.

AXILE, or AXIAL, a term ( = related to the axis) used technic-
ally in science; in botany an embryo is called axile when it has
the same direction as the axis of the seed.

AXINITE, a mineral consisting of a complex aluminium and
calcium boro-silicate with a small amount of basic hydrogen;
the calcium is partly replaced in varying amounts by ferrous
iron and manganese, and the aluminium by ferric iron: the
formula is HCaaBA^SiO^- The mineral was named (from
j, an axe) by R. J. Haiiy in 1799, on account of the char-
acteristic thin wedge-like form of its
anorthic crystals. The colour is usually
I clove-brown, but rarely it has a violet
tinge (on this account the mineral was
named yanolite, meaning violet stone, by
J. C. Delametherie in 1792). The best
specimens are afforded by the beautifully
developed transparent glassy crystals,
found with albite, prehnite and quartz,
in a zone of amphibolite and chlorite-schists at Le Bourg
d'Oisans in Dauphine. It is found in the greenstone and horn-
blende-schists of Batallack Head near St Just in Cornwall, and
in diabase in the Harz; and small ones in Maine and in North-
ampton county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Large crystals have
also been found in Japan. In its occurrence in basic rather than
in acid eruptive rocks, axinite differs from the boro-silicate
tourmaline, which is usually found in granite. The specific
gravity is 3-28. The hardness of 65-7, combined with the colour
and transparency, renders axinite applicable for use as a gem-
stone, the Dauphine crystals being occasionally cut for this
purpose. (L. J. S.)

AXIOM (Gr. d^twpui), a general proposition or principle
accepted as self-evident, either absolutely or within a particular
sphere of thought. Each special science has its own axioms
(cf. the Aristotelian dpxai, "first principles"), which, however,
are sometimes susceptible of proof in another wider science.
The Greek word was probably confined by Plato to mathematical
axioms, but Aristotle (Anal. Post. i. 2) gave it also the wider
significance of the ultimate principles of thought which are
behind all special sciences (e.g. the principle of contradiction).
These are apprehended solely by the mind, which may, however,
be led to them by an inductive process. After Aristotle, the
term was used by the Stoics and the school of Ramus for a
proposition simply, and Bacon (Nov. Organ. i. 7) used it of any
general proposition. The word was reintroduced in modern
philosophy probably by Rene Descartes (or by his followers)

who, in the search for a definite self-evident principle as the basis
of a new philosophy, naturally turned to the familiar science of
mathematics. The axiom of Cartesianism is, therefore, the
Cogito ergo sum. Kant still further narrowed the meaning to
include only self-evident (intuitive) synthetic propositions,
i.e. of space and time. The nature of axiomatic certainty is
part of the fundamental problem of logic and metaphysics.
Those who deny the possibility of all non-empirical knowledge
naturally hold that every axiom is ultimately based on observa-
tion. For the Euclidian axioms see GEOMETRY.

AXIS (Lat. for " axle "), a word having the same meaning
as axle, and also used with many extensions of this primary
meaning. It denotes the imaginary line about which a body
or system of bodies rotates, or a line about which a body or
action is symmetrically disposed. In geometry, and in geo-
metrical crystallography, the term denotes a line which serves
to aid the orientation of a figure. In anatomy, it is, among
other uses, applied to the second cervical vertebra, and in
botany it means the stem.

AXLE (in Mid. Eng. axel-Ire, from O. Norweg. oxM-tre,
cognate with the O. Eng. axe or eaxe, and connected with Sansk.
Aksha, Gr. ai-biv, and Lat. axis), the pin or spindle on which
a wheel turns. In carriages the axle-tree is the bar on which
the wheels are mounted, the axles being strictly its thinner
rounded prolongations on which they actually turn. The pins
which pass through the ends of the axles and keep the wheels
from slipping off are known as axle-pins or " linch-pins,"
" linch " being a corruption, due to confusion with " link,"
of the Old English word for " axle," lynis, cf. Ger. Liinse.

AX - LES - THERMES, a watering place of south-western
France, in the department of Ariege, at the confluence of the
Ariege with three tributaries, 26 m. S.S.E. of Foix by rail.
Pop. (1906) 1170- Ax (Aquae), situated at a height of 2300 ft.,
is well known for its warm sulphur springs (Tj°-i'j2° F.), of
which there are about sixty. The waters, which were used by
the Romans, are efficacious in the treatment of rheumatism,
skin diseases and other maladies.

AXMINSTER, a market-town in the Honiton parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, on the river Axe, 27 m. E. by
N. of Exeter by the London & South-Western railway. Pop.
(1901) 2906. The minster, dedicated to St Mary the Virgin,
illustrates every style of architecture from Norman to Perpen-
dicular. There are in the chancel two freestone effigies, perhaps
of the I4th century, besides three sedilia, and a piscina under
arches. Axminster was long celebrated for the admirable
quality of its carpets, which were woven by hand, like tapestry.
Their manufacture was established in 1755. Their name is
preserved, but since the seat of this industry was removed to
Wilton near Salisbury, the inhabitants of Axminster have found
employment in brush factories, corn mills, timber yards and an
iron foundry. Cloth, drugget, cotton, leather, gloves and
tapes are also made. Coaxdon House, the birthplace in 1602
of Sir Symonds d'Ewes, the Puritan historian, is about 2 m.
distant, and was formerly known as St Calyst.

Axminster (Axemystre) derives its name from the river Axe and
from the old abbey church or minster said to have been built by
King /Ethelstan. The situation of Axminster at the intersection of
the two great ancient roads, Iknield Street and the Fosse Way, and
also the numerous earthworks and hill-fortresses_ in the neighbour-
hood indicate a very early settlement. There is a tradition that
the battle of Brunanburh was fought in the valley of the Axe, and
that the bodies of the Danish princes who perished in action were
buried in Axminster church. According to Domesday, Axminster
was held by the king. In 1246 Reginald de Mohun, then lord of the
manor, founded a Cistercian abbey at Newenham within the parish
of Axminster, granting it a Saturday market and a fair on Mid-
summer day, and the next year made over to the monks from
Beaulieu the manor and hundred of Axminster. The abbey was
dissolved in 1539. The midsummer fair established by Reginald de
Mohun is still held.

See Victoria County History-^Devon; James Davidson, British
and Roman Remains in the Vicinity of Axminster (London, 1833).

AXOLOTL, the Mexican name given to larvae salamanders of
the genus Amblystoma. It required the extraordinary acumen
of the great Cuvier at once to recognize, when the first specimens

AXOLOTL

69

of the Gyrinus edulis or Axolotl of Mexico were brought to him
by Humboldt in the beginning of the igth century, that these
Batrachians were not really related to the Perennibranchiates,
such as Siren and Proteus, with which he was well acquainted,
but represented the larval form of some air-breathing salamander.
Little heed was paid to his opinion by most systematists, and
when, more than half a century later, the axolotl was found to
breed in its branchiferous condition, the question seemed to be
settled once for all against him, and the genus Siredon, as it was
called by J. Wagler, was unanimously maintained and placed
among the permanent gill-breathers.

It seemed impossible to admit that an animal which lives for
years without losing its gills, and is able to propagate in that
state, could be anything but a perfect form. And yet subsequent
discoveries, which followed in rapid succession, have established
that Siredon is but the larval form of the salamander Ambly-
sloma, a genus long known from various parts of North America;
and Cuvier's conclusions now read much better than they did
half a century after they were published. Before reviewing the
history of these discoveries, it is desirable to say a few words of
the characters of the axolotl (larval form) and of the Amblystoma
(perfect or imago form).

The axolotl has been known to the Mexicans from the remotest
times, as an article of food regularly brought from neighbouring
lakes to the Mexico market, its flesh being agreeable and whole-
some. Francisco Hernandez (1514-1578) has alluded to it as
Gyrinus edulis or atolocatl, and as lusus aquarum, piscis ludicrus,
or axolotl, which latter name has remained in use, in Mexico and
elsewhere, to the present day. But for its large size — it grows
to a length of eleven inches — it is a nearly exact image of the
British newt larvae. It has the same moderately long, plump
body, with a low dorsal crest, the continuation of the membrane
bordering the strongly compressed tail; a large thick head with
small eyes without lids and with a large pendent upper lip; two
pairs of well-developed limbs, with free digits; and above all,
as the most characteristic feature, three large appendages on
each side of the back of the head, fringed with filaments which,
in their fullest development, remind one of black ostrich feathers.
These are the external gills, through which the animal breathes
the oxygen dissolved in the water. The jaws are provided with
small teeth in several rows, and there is an elongate patch of
further teeth on each side of the front of the palate (inserted on
the vomerine and palatine bones). The colour is blackish, or of
a dark olive-grey or brownish grey with round black spots or dots.

The genus Amblystoma was established by J. J. Tschudi in
1838 for various salamanders from North America, which had
previously been described as Lacerta or Salamandra, and which,
so far as general appearance is concerned, differ little from the
European salamanders. The body is smooth and shiny, with
vertical grooves on the sides, the tail is but feebly compressed,
the eye is moderately large and provided with movable lids,
and the upper lip is nearly straight. But the dentition of the
palate is very different; the small teeth, which are in a single row,
as in the jaws, form a long transverse, continuous or interrupted
series behind the inner nares or choanae. The animal leaves the
water after completing its metamorphosis, the last stage of which
is marked by the loss of the gills. One of the largest and most
widely distributed species of this genus, which includes about
twenty, is the Amblystoma tigrinum, an inhabitant of both the
east and west of the United States and of a considerable part
of the cooler parts of Mexico. It varies much in colour, but it
may be described as usually brown or blackish, with more or less
numerous yellow spots, sometimes arranged in transverse bands.
It rarely exceeds a length of nine inches. This is the Amblystoma
into which the axolotl has been ascertained to transform. It is
generally admitted that the axolotls which were kept alive in
Europe and were particularly abundant between 1870 and 1880
are all the descendants of a stock bred in Paris and distributed
chiefly by dealers, originally, we believe, by the late P. Car-
bonnier. Close in-breeding without the infusion of new blood
is probably the cause of the decrease in their numbers at the
present day, specimens being more difficult to procure and

fetching much higher prices than they did formerly, at least in
England and in France.

The original axolotls, from the vicinity of Mexico City, it is
believed, arrived at the Jardin d'Acclimatation, Paris, late in

1863. They were thirty-four in number, among which was an
albino, and had been sent to that institution, together with a few
other animals, by order of Marshal Forey, who was appointed
commander-in-chief of the French expeditionary force to Mexico
after the defeat of General Lorencez at Puebla (May sth, 1862),
and returned to France at the end of 1863, after having handed
over the command to Marshal (then General) Bazaine. Six
specimens (five males and one female) were given by the Soci6te
d'Acclimatation to Professor A. Dum6ril, the administrator of the
reptile collection of the Jardin des Plantes, the living specimens
of which were at that time housed in a very miserable structure,
situated at a short distance from the comparatively sumptuous
building which was erected some years later ano> opened to the
public in 1874. Soon after their arrival at the Jardin d'Acclimata-
tion, some of the axolotls spawned, but the eggs, not having been
removed from the aquarium, were devoured by its occupants.
At the same time, in the Jardin des Plantes, the single female
axolotl also spawned, twice in succession, and a large number of
young were successfully reared. This, it then seemed, solved
the often-discussed question of the perennibranchiate nature of
these Batrachians. But a year later, the second generation
having reached sexual maturity, new broods were produced,
and out of these some individuals lost their gills and dorsal
crest, developed movable eyelids, changed their dentition, and
assumed yellow spots, — in fact, took on all the characters of
A mblystoma tigrinum. However, these transformed salamanders,
of which twenty-nine were obtained from 1865 to 1870, did not
breed, although their branchiate brethren continued to do so
very freely. It was not until 1876 that the axolotl in its Ambly-
stoma state, offspring of several generations of perennibran-
chiates, was first observed to spawn, and this again took place
in the reptile house of the Jardin des Plantes, as reported by
Professor E. Blanchard.

The original six specimens received in 1864 at the Jardin des
Plantes, which had been carefully kept apart from their progeny,
remained in the branchiate condition, and bred eleven times
from 1865 to 1868, and, after a period of two years' rest, again
in 1870. According to the report of Aug. Dumeril, they and
their offspring gave birth to 9000 or 10,000 larvae during that
period. So numerous were the axolotls that the Paris Museum
was able to distribute to other institutions, as well as to dealers
and private individuals, over a thousand examples, which found
their way to all parts of Europe, and numberless specimens have
been kept in England from 1866 to the present day. The first
specimens exhibited in the London Zoological Gardens, in August

1864, were probably part of the original stock received from
Mexico by the Societe d'Acclimatation, but do not appear to
have bred.

" White " axolotls, albinos of a pale'flesh colour, with beautiful
red gills, have also been kept in great numbers in England and
on the continent. They are said to be all descendants of one
albino male specimen received in the Paris Museum menagerie
in 1866, which, paired with normal specimens in 1867 and 1868,
produced numerous white offspring, which by selection have
been fixed as a permanent race, without, according to L. Vaillant,
showing any tendency to reversion. We are not aware of any
but two of these albinos having ever turned into the perfect
Amblystoma form, as happened in Paris in 1870, the albinism
being retained.

Thus we see that in our aquariums most of the axolotls remain
in the branchiate condition, transformed individuals being on
the whole very exceptional. Now it has been stated that in the
lakes near Mexico City, where it was first discovered, the axolotl
never transforms into an Amblystoma. This the present writer
is inclined to doubt, considering that he has received examples
of the normal Amblystoma tigrinum from various parts of
Mexico, and that Alfred Dug£s has described an Amblysloma
from mountains near Mexico City; at the same time he feels very

7°

AXUM— AYACUCHO

suspicious of the various statements to that effect which have
appeared in so many works, and rather disposed to make light
of the ingenious theories launched by biological speculators who
have never set foot in Mexico, especially Weismann's picture
of the dismal condition of the salt-incrusted surroundings which
were supposed to have hemmed in the axolotl — the brackish Lago
de Texcoco, the largest of the lakes near Mexico, being evidently
in the philosopher's mind.

Thanks to the enthusiasm of H. Gadow during his visit to
Mexico in the summer of 1002, we are now better informed
on the conditions under which the axolotl lives near Mexico City.
First, he ascertained that there are no axolotls at all in the Lago
de Texcoco, thus disposing at once of the Weismannian explana-
tion; secondly, he confirmed A. Duges's statement that there is
a second species of Amblystoma, which is normal in its meta-
morphosis, near Mexico but at a higher altitude, which may
explain VelasVo's observation that regularly transforming
' Amblystomas occur near that city; and thirdly, he made a care-
ful examination of the two lakes, Chalco and Xochimilco, where
the axolotls occur in abundance and are procured for the market.
The following is an abstract of Gadow's very interesting account.
" Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco are a paradise, situated about
10 ft. higher than the Texcoco Lake and separated from it
by several hills. High mountains slope down to the southern
shores, with a belt of fertile pastures, with shrubs and trees and
little streams, here and there with rocks and ravines. In fact,
there are thousands of inviting opportunities for newts to leave
the lake if they wanted to do so. Lake Xochimilco contains
powerful springs, but away from them the water appears dark
and muddy, full of suspended fresh and decomposing vegetable
matter, teeming with fish, larvae of insects, Daphniae, worms
and axolotl. These breed in the beginning of February. The
native fishermen know all about them; how the eggs are fastened
to the water plants, how soon after the little larvae swarm about
in thousands, how fast they grow, until by the month of June they
are all grown into big, fat creatures ready for the market; later
in the summer the axolotls are said to take to the rushes, in the
autumn they become scarce, but none have ever been known
to leave the water or to metamorphose, nor are any perfect
Amblystomas found in the vicinity of the two lakes."

In Gadow's opinion, the reason why there are only perenni-
branchiate axolotls in these lakes is obvious. The constant
abundance of food, stable amount of water, innumerable hiding-
places in the mud, under the banks, amongst the reeds and roots
of the floating islands which are scattered all over them, — all
these points are inducements or attractions so great that the
creatures remain in their paradise and consequently retain all
those larval features which are not directly connected with
sexual maturity. There is nothing whatever to prevent them
from leaving these lakes, but there is also nothing to induce
them to do so. The same applies occasionally to European
larvae, as in the case observed in the Italian Alps by F. de
Filippi. Nevertheless, in the axolotl the latent tendency can
still be revived, as we have seen above and as is proved by the
experiments of Marie von Chauvin. When once sexually ripe
the axolotl are apparently incapable of changing, but their
ancestral course of evolution is still latent in them, and will, if
favoured by circumstances, reappear in following generations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — G. Cuvier, Mem. Instil. Nation. (1807), p. 149,
and in A. Humboldt and A. Bompland, Observ. zool. i. (1811), p. 93;
L. Calori, Mem. Ace. Bologna, iii. (1851), p. 269; A. Dumeril, Camples
rendus, Ix. (1865), p. 765, and N. Arch. Mus. ii. (1866), p. 265;
E. Blanchard, Comptes rendus, Ixxxii. (1876), p. 716; A. Weismann,
Z. wiss. Zool. xxv. (Suppl. 1875), p. 297; M. von.Chauvin, Z. wiss.
Zool. xxvii. (1876), p. 522; F. de Filippi, Arch. p. la zool. i. (1862),
p. 206; G. Hahn, Rev. Quest. Sci. Brussels (2), i. (1892), p. 178;
H. Gadow, Nature, Ixvii. (1903), p. 330. (G. A. B.)

AXUM, or AKSUM, an ancient city in the province of Tigr€,
Abyssinia (14° 7' 52" N., 38° 31' 10" E.; altitude, 7226 ft), 12 m.
W. by S. of Adowa. Many European travellers have given
descriptions of its monuments, though none of them has stayed
there more than a few days. The name, written Aksm and
Aksum in the Sabaean and Ethiopic inscriptions in the place,

is found in classical and early Christian writers in the forms of
Auxome, Axumis, Axume, &c., the first mention being in the
Periplus Mans Erythraei (c. A.D. 67), where it is said to be the
seat of a kingdom, and the emporium for the ivory brought from
the west. For the history of this kingdom see ETHIOPIA. J. T.
Bent conjectured that the seat of government was transferred to
Axum from Jeha, which he identified with the ancient Ava;
and according to a document quoted by Achille Raffray the third
Christian monarch transferred it from Axum to Lalibela. This
second transference probably took place very much later; in
spite of it, the custom of crowning Abyssinian kings at Axum
continued, and King John was crowned there as late as 1871 or
1872. A. B. Wylde conjectures that it had become unsuitable
for a royal seat by having acquired the status of a sacred city,
and thus affording sanctuary to criminals and political offenders
within the chief church and a considerable area round it, where
there are various houses in which such persons can be lodged and
entertained. This same sanctity makes it serve as a depository
for goods of all sorts in times of danger, the chief church forming
a sort of bank. The present town, containing less than a thousand
houses, is supposed to occupy only a small portion of the area
covered by the ancient city; it lies in a kloof or valley, but the
old town must have been built on the western ridge rather than
in the valley, as the traces of well-dressed stones are more
numerous there than elsewhere.

Most of the antiquities of Axum still await excavation ; those
that have been described consist mainly of obelisks, of which
about fifty are still standing, while many more are fallen. They
form a consecutive series from rude unhewn stones to highly
finished obelisks, of which the tallest still erect is 60 ft. in height,
with 8 ft. 7 in. extreme front width; others that are fallen may
have been taller. The highly finished monoliths are all representa-
tions of a many-storeyed castle, with an altar at the base of each.
They appear to be connected with Semitic sun-worship, and are
assigned by Bent to the same period as the temple at Baalbek,
though some antiquarians would place them much earlier; the
representation of a castle in a single stone seems to bear some
relation to the idea worked out in the monolith churches of
Lalibela described by Raffray. The fall of many of the monuments,
according to Bent, was caused by the washing away of the
foundations by the stream called Mai Shum, and indeed the native
tradition states that " Gudert, queen of the Amhara," when she
visited Axum, destroyed the chief obelisk in this way by digging
a trench from the river to its foundation. Others attribute it
to religious fanaticism, or to the result of some barbaric invasion,
such as Axum may have repeatedly endured before it was sacked
by Mahommed Gran, sultan of Harrar, about 1535.

LITERATURE. — Classical references to Axum are collected by
Pietschmann in Pauly's Realencyclopadie (2nd cd.) ; for the history
as derived from the inscriptions see D. H. Miiller, Appendix to
J. T. Bent's Sacred City of the Ethiopians (London, 1893), and
E. Glaser, Die Abessimer in Arabien (Munich, 1895). For the
antiquities, Bruce's Travels (1790); Salt, in the Travels of Viscount
Valentia (London, 1809), iii. 87-97 ant^ 178-200; J. T. Bent, I.e. ;
and A. B. Wylde, Modern Abyssinia (London, 1901). For geology,
Schimper, in the Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde (Berlin,
1869). (D. S. M.*)

AY, AYE. The word " aye," meaning always (and pronounced
as in "day"; connected with Gr. &d, always, and Lat. aevum,
an age), is often spelt " ay," and the New English Dictionary
prefers this. " Aye," meaning Yes (and pronounced almost like
the word " eye "), though sometimes identified with " yea," is
probably the same word etymologically, though differentiated
by usage; the form " ay " for this is also common, but incon-
venient; at one time it was spelt simply / (e.g. in Michael
Dray ton's Idea, 57; published in 1593).

AYACUCHO, a city and department of central Peru, formerly
known as Guamanga or Huamanga, renamed from the small
plain of Ayacucho (Quichua, " corner of death ")• This lies
near the village of Quinua, in an elevated valley 11,600 ft.
above sea-level, where a decisive battle was fought between
General Sucr6 and the Spanish viceroy La Serna in 1824, which
resulted in the defeat of the latter and the independence of Peru.
The city of Ayacucho, capital of the department of that name

AYAH— AYE-AYE

and of the province of Guamanga, is situated on an elevated
plateau, 8911 ft. above sea-level, between the western and central
Cordilleras, and on the main road between Lima and Cuzco, 394
m. from the former by way of Jauja. Pop. (1896) 20,000. It
has an agreeable, temperate climate, is regularly built, and has
considerable commercial importance. It is the seat of a bishopric
and of a superior court of justice. It is distinguished for the
number of its churches and conventual establishments, although
the latter have been closed. The city was founded by Pizarro
in 1539 and was known as Guamanga down to 1825. It has been
the scene of many notable events in the history of Peru.

The department of AYACUCHO extends across the great plateau
of central Peru, between the departments of Huancavelica and
Apurimac, with Cuzco on the E. and lea on the W. Area,
18,185 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 302,469. It is divided into six
provinces, and covers a broken, mountainous region, partially
barren in its higher elevations but traversed by deep, warm,
fertile valleys. It formed a part of the original home of the Incas
and once sustained a large population. It produces Indian corn
and other cereals and potatoes in the colder regions, and tropical
fruits, sweet potatoes and mandioca (Jatropha manihot, L.) in
the low tropical valleys. It is also an important mining region,
having a large number of silver mines in operation. Its name
was changed from Guamanga to Ayacucho by a decree of 1825.

AYAH, a Spanish word (aya) for children's nurse or maid,
introduced by the Portuguese into India and adopted by the
English to denote their native nurses.

AYALA, DON PEDRO LOPEZ DE (1332-1407), Spanish states-
man, historian and poet, was born at Vittoria in 1332. He first
came into prominence at the court of Peter the Cruel, whose
cause he finally deserted; he greatly distinguished himself in
subsequent campaigns, during which he was twice made prisoner,
by the Black Prince at Najera (1367) and by the Portuguese
at Aljubarrota (1385). A favourite of Henry II. and John I.
of Castile, he was made grand chancellor of the realm by Henry
III. in 1398. A brave officer and an able diplomat, Ayala was
one of the most cultivated Spaniards of his time, at once historian,
translator and poet. Of his many works the most important
are his chronicles of the four kings of Castile during whose
reigns he lived; they give a generally accurate account of scenes
and events, most of which he had witnessed; he also wrote a
long satirical and didactic poem, interesting as a picture of his
personal experiences and of contemporary morality. The first
part of his chronicle, covering only the reign of Peter the Cruel,
was printed at Seville in 1495; the first complete edition was
printed in 1770-1780 in the collection of Cronicas Espanolas,
under the auspices of the Spanish Royal Academy of History.
Ayala died at Calahorra in 1407.

See Rafael Floranes, " Vida literaria de Pedro Lopez de Ayala,"
in the Documentos ineditos para la historia de Espana, vols. xix. and
xx. ; F. W. Schirrmacher, " tlber die Glaubwiirdigkeit der Chronik
Ayalas," in Geschichte von Spanien (Berlin, 1902), vol. v. pp. 510-
532-

AYALA Y HERRERA, ADELARDO LOPEZ DE (1828-1879),
Spanish writer and politician, was born at Guadalcanal on the
ist of May 1828, and at a very early age began writing for the
theatre of his native town. The titles of these juvenile per-
formances, which were played by amateurs, were Saiga par
donde saliere, Me voy a Sevilla and La Corona y el Punal. As
travelling companies never visited Guadalcanal, and as ladies
took no part in the representations, these three plays were
written for men only. Ayala persuaded his sister to appear as
the heroine of his comedy, La primera Dama, and the innovation,
if it scandalized some of his townsmen, permitted him to develop
his talent more freely. In his twentieth year he matriculated
at the university of Seville, but his career as a student was
undistinguished. In Seville he made acquaintance with Garcia
Gutierrez, who is reported to have encouraged his dramatic
ambitions and to have given him the benefit of his own experience
as a playwright. Early in 1850 Ayala removed his name from
the university books, and settled in Madrid with the purpose
of becoming a professional dramatist. Though he had no
friends and no influence, he speedily found an opening. A four-

act play in verse, Un Hombre de Estado, was accepted by the
managers of the Teatro Espafiol, was given on the 2$th of
January 1851, and proved a remarkable success. Henceforward
Ayala's position and popularity were secure. Within a twelve-
month he became more widely known by his Castigo y Perdon,
and by a more humorous effort, Los dos Guzmancs; and
shortly afterwards he was appointed by the Moderado govern-
ment to a post in the home office, which he lost in 1854 on the
accession to power of the Liberal party. In 1854 he produced
Rioja, perhaps the most admired and the most admirable of all
his works, and from 1854 to 1856 he took an active part in the
political campaign carried on in the journal El Padre Cobos. A
zarzuela, entitled Guerta a muerte, for which Emilio Arrieta
composed the music, belongs to 1855, and to the same collabora-
tion is due El Agente de Matrimonies. At about this date Ayala
passed over from the Moderates to the Progressives, and this
political manceuvre had its effect upon the fate of his plays.
The performances of Los Comuneros were attended by members
of the different parties; the utterances of the different characters
were taken to represent the author's personal opinions, and
every speech which could be brought into connexion with
current politics was applauded by one half of the house and
derided by the other half. A zarzuela, named El Conde de
Castralla, was given amid much uproar on the 2oth of February
1856, and, as the piece seemed likely to cause serious disorder
in the theatre;<it was suppressed by the government after the
third performance. Ayala's rupture with the Moderates was
now complete, and in 1857, through the interest of O'Donnell,
he was elected as Liberal deputy for Badajoz. His political
changes are difficult to follow, or to explain, and they have been
unsparingly censured. So far as can be judged, Ayala had no
strong political views, and drifted with the current of the moment.
He took part in the revolution of 1868, wrote the " Manifesto
of Cadiz," took office as colonial minister, favoured the candida-
ture of the due de Montpensier, resigned in 1871, returned to his
early Conservative principles, and was a member of Alfonso
XII. 's first cabinet. Meanwhile, however divided in opinion as
to his political conduct, his countrymen were practically unani-
mous in admiring his dramatic work; and his reputation, if
it gained little by El Nuevo Don Juan, was greatly increased by
EJ, Tanto for Ciento and El Tejado de Vidrio. His last play,
Consuelo, was given on the 3oth of March 1878. Ayala was
nominated to the post of president of congress shortly before
his death, which occurred unexpectedly on the 3oth of January
1879. The best of his lyrical work, excellent for finish and
intense sincerity, is his Epistola to Emilio Arrieta, and had he
chosen to dedicate himself to lyric poetry, he might possibly
have ranked with the best of Spain's modern singers; as it is,
he is a very considerable poet who affects the dramatic form.
In his later writings he deals with modern society, its vices,
ideals and perils; yet in many essentials he is a manifest
disciple of Calderon. He has the familiar Calderonian limitations;
the substitution of types for characters, of eloquence for vital
dialogue. Nor can he equal the sublime lyrism of his model;
bijt he is little inferior in poetic conception, in dignified idealiza-
tion, and in picturesque imagery. And it may be fairly claimed
for him that in El Tejado de Vidrio and El Tanto por Ciento he
displays a very exceptional combination of satiric intention with
romantic inspiration. By these plays and by Rioja and Consuelo
he is entitled to be judged. They will at least ensure for him
an honourable place in the history of the modern Spanish theatre.
A complete edition of his dramatic works, edited by his friend and
rival Tamayo y Baus, has been published in seven volumes (Madrid,
1881-1885). (J- F.-K.)

AYE-AYE, a word of uncertain signification (perhaps only an
exclamation), but universally accepted as the designation of the
most remarkable and aberrant of all the Malagasy lemurs (see
PRIMATES). The aye-aye, Chiromys (or Daubentonia) madagas-
cariensis, is an animal with a superficial resemblance to a long-
haired and dusky-coloured cat with unusually large eyes. It
has a broad rounded head, short face, large naked eyes, large
hands, and long thin fingers with pointed claws, of which the

AYLESBURY— AYLESFORD

third is remarkable for its extreme slenderness. The foot
resembles that of the other lemurs in its large opposable great
toe with a flat nail; but all the other toes have pointed com-
pressed claws. Tail long and bushy. General colour dark
brown, the outer fur being long and rather loose, with a woolly
under-coat. Teats two, inguinal in position. The aye-aye
was discovered by Pierre Sonnerat in 1780, the specimen
brought to Paris by that traveller being the only one known
until 1860. Since then many others have been obtained, and
one lived for several years in the gardens of the Zoological Society
of London. Like so many lemurs, it is completely nocturnal
in its habits, living either alone or in pairs, chiefly in the bamboo
forests. Observations upon captive specimens have led to the
conclusion that it feeds principally on juices, especially of the
sugar-cane, which it obtains by tearing open the hard woody
circumference of the stalk with its strong incisor teeth; but it
is said also to devour certain species of wood-boring caterpillars,
which it obtains by first cutting down with its teeth upon their
burrows, and then picking them out of their retreat with the
claw of its attenuated middle finger. It constructs large ball-like
nests of dried leaves, lodged in a fork of the branches of a large
tree, and with the opening on one side.

Till recently the aye-aye was regarded as representing a
family by itself — the Chiromyidae; but the discovery that it
resembles the other lemurs of Madagascar in the structure of
the inner ear, and thus differs from all other members of the
group, has led to the conclusion that it is best classed as a
subfamily (Chiromyinae) of the Lemuridae. (R. L.*)

AYLESBURY, a market-town in the Aylesbury parlia-
mentary division of Buckinghamshire, England, 38 m. N. W. by
W. of London; served by the Great Central, Metropolitan
and Great Western railways (which use a common station)
and by a branch of the London & North- Western railway. Pop.
of urban district (1001) 9243. It has connexion by a branch
with the Grand Junction canal. It lies on a slight eminence in
a fertile tract called the Vale of Aylesbury, which extends north-
ward from the foot of the Chiltern Hills. Its streets are mostly
narrow and irregular, but picturesque. The church of St Mary,
a large cruciform building, is primarily Early English, but has
numerous additions of later dates. The font is transitional
Norman, a good example; and a small pre-Norman crypt remains
beneath part of the church. There are some Decorated canopied
tombs, and the chancel stalls are of the isth century. The
central tower is surmounted by an ornate clock-turret dating
from the second half of the lyth century. The county-hall and
town-hall, overlooking a broad market-place, are the principal
public buildings. The grammar school was founded in 1611.
Aylesbury is the assize town for the county, though Buckingham
is the county town. There is a large agricultural trade, the
locality being especially noted for the rearing of ducks; straw-
plaiting and the manufacture of condensed milk are carried on,
and there are printing works. The Jacobean mansion of Hart-
well in the neighbourhood of Aylesbury was the residence of the
French king Louis XVIII. during his exile (1810-1814).

Aylesbury (/Eylesburge, Eilesberia, Aillesbir) was famous in Saxon
times as the supposed burial-place of St Osith. In A.D. 571 it was
one of the towns captured by Cuthwulf, brother of Ceawhn, king of
the Saxons. At the time of the Domesday survey the king owned
the manor. In 1554, by a charter from Queen Mary, bestowed as a
reward for fidelity during the rebellion of the duke of Northumber-
land, Aylesbury was constituted a free borough corporate, with
a common council consisting of a bailiff, 10 aldermen and 12
chief burgesses. The borough returned two members to parliament
from this date until the Redistribution Act of 1885, but the other
privileges appear to have lapsed in the reign of Elizabeth. Ayles-
bury evidently had a considerable market from very early times,
the tolls being assessed at the time of Edward the Confessor at £25
and at the time of the Domesday survey at £10. In 1239 Henry III.
made a grant to John, son of Geoffrey FitzPeter of an annual fair at
the feast of St Osith (June 3rd), which was confirmed by Henry VI.
in 1440. Queen Mary's charter instituted a Wednesday market
and fairs at the feasts of the Annunciation and the Invention of the
Holy Cross. In 1579 John Pakington obtained a grant of two
annual fairs to be held on the day before Palm Sunday and on the
feast of the Invention of the Holy Cross, and a Monday market for
the sale of horses and other animals, grain and merchandise.

AYLESFORD, HENEAGE FINCH, ist EARL OF (c. 1649-1719),
2nd son of Heneage Finch, ist earl of Nottingham, was educated
at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he
matriculated on the i8th of November 1664. In 1673 hg became
a barrister of the Inner Temple; king's counsel and bencher
in 1677; and in 1679, during the chancellorship of his father,
was appointed solicitor-general, being returned to parliament
for Oxford University, and in 1685 for Guildford. In 1682 he
represented the crown in the attack upon the corporation of
London, and next year in the prosecution of Lord Russell, when,
according to Burnet, " and in several other trials afterwards, he
showed more of a vicious eloquence in turning matters with
some subtlety against the prisoners than of strict or sincere
reasoning." * He does not, however, appear to have exceeded
the duties of prosecutor for the crown as they were then under-
stood. In 1684, in the trial of Algernon Sidney, he argued that
the unpublished treatise of the accused was an overt act, and
supported the opinion of Jeffreys that scribere est agere.2 The
same year he was counsel for James in his successful action against
Titus Oates for libel, and in 1685 prosecuted Gates for the crown
for perjury. Finch, however, though a Tory and a crown lawyer,
was a staunch churchman, and on his refusal in 1686 to defend
the royal dispensing power he was summarily dismissed by James.
He was the leading counsel in June 1688 for the seven bishops,
when he " strangely exposed and very boldly ran down "3 the
dispensing power, but his mistaken tactics were nearly the cause of
his clients losing their case.4 He sat again for Oxford University
in the convention parliament, which constituency he represented
in all the following assemblies except that of 1698, till his eleva-
tion to the peerage. He was, however, no supporter of the House
of Orange, advocated a regency in James's name, and was one of
the few who in the House of Commons opposed the famous vote
that James had broken the contract between king and people
and left the throne vacant. He held no office during William's
reign, and is described by Macky as " always a great opposer "
of the administration. In 1689 he joined in voting for the
reversal of Lord Russell's attainder, and endeavoured to defend
his conduct in the trial, but was refused a hearing by the House.
He opposed the Triennial Bill of 1692, but in 1696 spoke against
the bill of association and test, which was voted for the king's
protection, on the ground that though William was to be obeyed
as sovereign he could not be acknowledged " rightful and lawful
king." In 1694 he argued against the crown in the bankers'
case. In 1703 he was created baron of Guernsey and a privy
councillor, and after the accession of George I. on the igth of
October 1714, earl of Aylesford, being reappointed a privy coun-
cillor and made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, which office
he retained till February 1716. He died on the 22nd of July
1719. According to John Macky (Memoirs, p. 71; published by
Roxburghe Club, 1895) he was accounted " one of the greatest
orators in England and a good common lawyer; a firm asserter
of the prerogative of the crown and jurisdiction of the church;
a tall, thin, black man, splenatick." He married Elizabeth,
daughter and co-heiress of Sir John Banks of Aylesford, by whom,
besides six daughters, he had three sons, of whom the eldest,
Heneage, succeeded him as 2nd earl of Aylesford. The 2nd
earl died in 1757, and since this date the earldom has been held
by his direct descendants, six of whom in succession have borne
the Christian name of Heneage.

Many of his legal arguments are printed in State Trials (see esp.
viii. 694, 1087, ix. 625, 880, 996, x. 126, 319, 405, 1199, xii. 183, 353,
365). Wood attributes to him on the faith of common rumour the
authorship of An A ntidote against Poison . . .Remarks upon a Paper
printed by Lady (Rachel) Russel (1683), ascribed in State Trials (ix.
710) to Sir Bartholomew Shower; but see the latter's allusion to it
on p. 753.

1 Hist, of His Own Times, i. 556. Swift has appended a note, " an
arrant rascal," but Finch's great offence with the dean was probably
his advancement by George I. rather than his conduct of state trials
as here described.

2 Ibid. 572, and Speaker Onslow's note.
' N. Luttrell's Relation, i. 447.

4 State Trials, xii. 353.

AYLESFORD— AYMESTRY LIMESTONE

73

AYLESFORD, a town in the Medway parliamentary division
of Kent, England, 3$ m. N.W. of Maidstone on the South-
Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 2678. It stands at
the base of a hill on the right bank of the Medway. The
ancient church of St Peter (restored in 1878) is principally
Perpendicular, but contains some Norman and Decorated
portions. It has interesting brasses of the i$th and i6th cen-
turies and an early embattled tower. At a short distance
west, a residence occupying part of the site, are remains of a
Carmelite friary, founded here in 1240. It is claimed for this
foundation (but not with certainty) that it was the first house
of Carmelites established in England, and the first general
chapter of the order was held here in 1 245. Several remains of
antiquity exist in the neighbourhood, among them a cromlech
called Kit's Coty House, about a mile north-east from the village.
(See STONE MONUMENTS, Plate, fig. 2.) In accordance with
tradition this has been thought to mark the burial-place of
Catigern, who was slain here in a battle between the Britons and
Saxons in A.D. 455; the name has also been derived from Celtic
Ked-coit, that is, the tomb in the wood. The name of the larger
group of monuments close by, called the Countless Stones, is due
to the popular belief, which occurs elsewhere, that they are not
to be counted. Large numbers of British coins have been found
in the neighbourhood. The supposed tomb of Horsa, who fell
in the same battle, is situated at Horsted, about 2 m. to the
north.

AYLLON, LUCAS VASQUEZ DE (c. 1475-1526), Spanish
adventurer and colonizer in America, was born probably in
Toledo, Spain, about 1475. He accompanied Nicolas Ovando
to Hispaniola (Santo Domingo) in 1502, and there became a
magistrate of La Concepcion and other towns, and a member
of the superior court of Hispaniola. He engaged with great
profit in various commercial enterprises, became interested in a
plan for the extension of the Spanish settlements to the North
American mainland, and in 1521 sent Francisco Gordillo on an
exploring expedition which touched on the coast of the Florida
peninsula and coasted for some distance northward. Gordillo's
report of the region was so favourable that Ay lion in 1523
obtained from Charles V. a rather indefinite charter giving
him the right to plant colonies. He sent another reconnoitring
expedition in 1525, and early in 1526 he himself set out with 500
colonists and about 100 African slaves. He touched at several
places along the coast, at one time stopping long enough to
replace a wrecked ship with a new one, this being considered
the first instance of shipbuilding on the North American con-
tinent. Sailing northward to about latitude 33° 40', he began
the construction of a town which he called San Miguel. The
exact location of this town is in dispute, some writers holding
that it was on the exact spot upon which Jamestown, Va.,
was later built; more probably, however, as Lowery contends,
it was near the mouth of the Pedee river. The employment of
negro slaves here was undoubtedly the first instance of the sort
in what later became the United States. The spot was unhealthy
and fever carried off many of the colonists, including Ayllon
himself, who died on the i8th of October 1526. After the death
of their leader dissensions broke out among the colonists, some
of the slaves rebelled and escaped into the forest, and in December
the town was abandoned and the remnant of the colonists
embarked for Hispaniola, less than 150 arriving in safety.

See Woodbury Lowery, Spanish Settlements within the Present
Limits of the United States (2 vols., New York, 1903-1905).

AYLMER, JOHN (1521-1594), English divine, was born in
the year 1521 at Aylmer Hall, Tivetshall St Mary, Norfolk.
While still a boy, his precocity was noticed by Henry Grey,
marquis of Dorset, afterwards duke of Suffolk, who sent him to
Cambridge, where he seems to have become a fellow of Queens'
College. About 1541 he was made chaplain to the duke, and
tutor to his daughter, Lady Jane Grey. His first preferment
was to the archdeaconry of Stow, in the diocese of Lincoln, but
his opposition in convocation to the doctrine of transubstantia-
tion led to his deprivation and to his flight into Switzerland.
While there he wrote a reply to John Knox's famous Blast

against the Monstrous Regiment of Women, under the title of
An Harbor owe for Faithfull and Trewe Subjects, &c., and assisted
John Foxe in translating the Acts of the Martyrs into Latin.
On the accession of Elizabeth he returned to England. In 1559
he resumed the Stow archdeaconry, and in 1562 he obtained
that of Lincoln. He was a member of the famous convocation
of 1562, which reformed and settled the doctrine and discipline
of the Church of England. In 1576 he was consecrated bishop
of London, and while in that position made himself notorious
by his harsh treatment of all who differed from him on ecclesi-
astical questions, whether Puritan or Papist. Various efforts
were made to remove him to another see. He is frequently
assailed in the famous Marprelate Tracts, and is characterized as
" Morrell," the bad shepherd, in Spenser's Shepheard's Calendar
(July). His reputation as a scholar hardly balances his inade-
quacy as a bishop in the transition time in which he lived. He
died in June 1594. His Life was written by John Strype
(1701).

AYHARA (anc. Colla), a tribe of South American Indians,
formerly inhabiting the country around Lake Titicaca and the
neighbouring valleys of the Andes. They form now the chief
ethnical element in Bolivia, but are of very mixed blood. In
early days the home of the Aymaras by Lake Titicaca was a
" holy land " for the Incas themselves, whose national legends
attributed the origin of all Quichua (Inca) civilization to that
region. The Aymaras, indeed, seem to have possessed a very
considerable culture before their conquest by the Incas in the
i3th and i4th centuries, evidence of which remains in the
megalithic ruins of Tiahuanaco. When the Spaniards arrived
the Aymaras had been long under the Inca domination, and
were in a decadent state. They, however, retained certain
privileges, such as the use of their own language; and their
treatment by their conquerors generally suggested that the latter
believed themselves of Aymara blood. Physically, the pure
Aymara is short and thick-set, with a great chest development,
and with the same reddish complexion, broad face, black eyes
and rounded forehead which distinguish the Quichuas. Like
the latter, too, the Aymaras are sullen and apathetic in disposi-
tion. They number now, including half-breeds, about half a
million in Bolivia. Some few are also found in southern Peru.

See Journal Ethnol. Society (1870), " The Aymara Indians of
Bolivia and Peru."

AYMER, or .ETHEI.MAR, OF VALENCE (d. 1260), bishop of
Winchester, was a half-brother of Henry III. His mother was
Isabelle of Angouleme, the second wife of King John, his father
was Hugo of Lusignan, the count of La Marche, whom Isabelle
married in 1 2 20. The children of this marriage came to England
in 1247 in the hope of obtaining court preferment. In 1250
the king, by putting strong pressure upon the electors, succeeded
in obtaining the see of Winchester for Aymer. The appointment
was in every way unsuitable. Aymer was illiterate, ignorant of
the English language, and wholly secular in his mode of life.
Upon his head was concentrated the whole of the popular
indignation against the foreign favourites; and he seems to have
deserved this unenviable distinction. At the parliament of
Oxford (1258) he and his brothers repudiated the new constitu-
tion prepared by the barons. He was pursued to Winchester,
besieged in Wolvesey castle, and finally compelled to surrender
and leave the kingdom. He had never been consecrated;
accordingly in 1259 the chapter of Winchester proceeded to
a new election. Aymer, however, gained the support of the
pope; he was on his way back to England when he was over-
taken by a fatal illness at Paris.

See W. Stubbs' Constitutional History, vol. ii. (1896); G. W.
Prothero's Simon de Montfort (1877) ; W. H. Blaauw's Barons' War
(1871).

AYMESTRY LIMESTONE, an inconstant limestone which
occurs locally in the Ludlow series of Silurian rocks, between
the Upper and Lower Ludlow shales. It derives its name from
Aymestry in Herefordshire, where it may be seen on both sides
of the river Lugg. It is well developed in the neighbourhood
of Ludlow (it is sometimes called the Ludlow limestone) and
occupies a similar position in the Ludlow shales at Woolhope,

74

AYR— AYRSHIRE

the Abberley Hills, May HU1 and the Malvern Hills. In litho-
logical character it varies greatly; in one place it is a dark grey,
somewhat crystalline limestone, elsewhere it passes into a flaggy,
earthy or shaly condition, or even into a mere layer of nodules.
When well developed it may reach 50 ft. in thickness in beds
of from i to 5 ft.; in this condition it naturally forms a con-
spicuous feature in the landscape because it stands out by its
superior hardness from the soft shales above and below.

The most common fossil is Pentamerus Knightii, which is
extremely abundant in places. Other brachiopods, corals and
trilobites are present, and are similar to those found in the
Wenlock limestone. (See SILURIAN.)

AYR, a royal, municipal and police burgh and seaport, and
county town of Ayrshire, Scotland, at the mouth of the river
Ayr, 4ijm. S.S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-
western railway. Pop. (1891) 24,944; (IQ°I) 29,101. It is
situated on a fine bay and its beautiful sands attract thousands
of summer visitors. Ayr proper lies on the south bank of the
river, which is crossed by three bridges, besides the railway
viaduct — the Victoria Bridge (erected in 1898) and the famous
" Twa Brigs " of Burns. The Auld Brig is said to date from
the reign of Alexander III. (d. 1286). The New Brig was built
in 1788, mainly owing to the efforts of Provost Ballantyne.
The prophecy which Burns put into the mouth of the venerable
structure came true in 1877, when the newer bridge yielded
to floods and had to be rebuilt (1879); and the older structure
itself was closed for public safety in 1904. The town has extended
greatly on the southern side of the stream, where, in the direction
of the racecourse, there are now numerous fine villas. The
county buildings, designed after the temple of Isis in Rome,
accommodate the circuit and provincial courts and various local
authorities. The handsome town buildings, surmounted by
a fine spire 226 ft. high, contain assembly and reading rooms.
Of the schools the most notable is the Academy (rebuilt in 1880),
which in 1764 superseded the grammar school of the burgh,
which existed in the I3th century. The Gothic Wallace Tower
in High Street stands on the site of an old building of the
same name taken down in 1835, from which were transferred
the clock and bells of the Dungeon steeple. A niche in front
is filled by a statue of the Scottish hero by James Thorn (1802-
1850), a self-taught sculptor. There are statues of Burns, the
i3th earl of Eglinton, General Smith Neill and Sir William
Wallace. The Carnegie free library was established in 1893.
The charitable institutions include the county hospital, district
asylum, a deaf and dumb home, the Kyle combination poor-
house, St John's refuge and industrial schools for boys and
girls. The Ayr Advertiser first appeared on sth of August 1803,
and was the earliest newspaper published in Ayrshire. In the
suburbs is a racecourse where the Western Meeting is held in
September of every year. The principal manufactures include
leather, carpets, woollen goods, flannels, blankets, lace, boots and
shoes; and fisheries and shipbuilding are also carried on. There
are several foundries, engineering establishments and saw mills.
Large quantities of timber are imported from Canada and
Norway; coal, iron, manufactured goods and agricultural
produce are the chief exports. The harbour, with wet and slip
dock, occupies both sides of the river from the New Bridge to
the sea, and is protected on the south by a pier projecting some
distance into the sea, and on the north by a breakwater with
a commodious dry dock. There are esplanades to the south and
north of the harbour. The town is governed by a provost and
council, and unites with Irvine, Inveraray, Campbeltown and
Oban in returning one member to parliament.

In 1873 the municipal boundary was extended northwards
beyond the river so as to include Newton-upon-Ayr and Wallace
Town, formerly separate. Newton is a burgh or barony of very
ancient creation, the charter of which is traditionally said to
have been granted by Robert Bruce in favour of forty-eight
of the inhabitants who had distinguished themselves at Bannock-
burn. The suburb is now almost wholly occupied with manu-
factures, the chief of which are chemicals, boots and shoes,
carpets and lace. It is on the Glasgow & South-Western

railway, and has a harbour and dock from which coal and goods
are the main exports. About 3 m. north of Ayr is Prestwick,
a popular watering-place and the headquarters of one of the
most flourishing golf clubs in Scotland. The outstanding
attraction of Ayr, however, is the pleasant suburb of Alloway,
i\ m. to the south, with which there is frequent communication
by electric cars. The " auld clay biggin " in which Robert
Burns was born on the 25th of January 1759, has been com-
pletely repaired and is now the property of the Ayr Burns's
Monument trustees. In the kitchen is the box bed in which
the poet was born, and many of the articles of furniture belonged
to his family. Adjoining the cottage is a museum of Burnsiana.
The " auld haunted kirk," though roofless, is otherwise in a
fair state of preservation, despite relic-hunters who have removed
all the woodwork. In the churchyard is the grave of William
Burness, the poet's father. Not far distant, on a conspicuous
position close by the banks of the Boon, stands the Grecian
monument to Burns, in the grounds of which is the grotto con-
taining Thorn's figures of Tam o' Shanter and Souter Johnnie.

Nothing is known of the history of Ayr till the close of the 1 2th
century, when it was made a royal residence, and soon afterwards
a royal burgh, by William the Lion. During the wars of Scottish
independence the possession of Ayr and its castle was an object
of importance to both the contending parties, and the town was
the scene of many of Wallace's exploits. In 1315 the Scottish
parliament met in the church of St John to confirm the succession
of Edward Bruce to the throne. Early in the i6th century it was
a place of considerable influence and trade. The liberality of
William the Lion had bestowed upon the corporation an extensive
grant of lands; while in addition to the well-endowed church of
St John, it had two monasteries, each possessed of a fair revenue.
When Scotland was overrun by Cromwell, Ayr was selected as
the site of one of the forts which he built to command the country.
This fortification, termed the citadel, enclosed an area of ten
or twelve acres, and included within its limits the church of St
John, which was converted into a storehouse, the Protector partly
indemnifying the inhabitants by contributing £150 towards the
erection of a new place of worship, now known as the Old Church.
A portion of the tower of St John's church remains, but has
been completely modernized. The site of the fort is now nearly
covered with houses, the barracks being in Fort Green.

AYRER, JAKOB (?-i6os), German dramatist, of whose life
little is known. He seems to have come to Nuremberg as a boy
and worked his way up to the position of imperial notary. He
died at Nuremberg on the 26th of March 1605. Besides a
rhymed Chronik der Stadt Bamberg (edited by J. Heller, Bamberg,
1838), and an unpublished translation of the Psalms, Ayrer has
left a large number of dramas which were printed at Nuremberg
under the title Opus Theatricum in 1618. This collection contains
thirty tragedies and comedies and thirty-six Fastnachtsspiele
(Shrovetide plays) and Singspiele. As a dramatist, Ayrer is
virtually the successor of Hans Sachs (q.v.), but he came under
the influence of the so-called Englische Komodianten, that is,
troupes of English actors, who, at the close of the i6th century
and during the I7th, repeatedly visited the continent, bringing
with them the repertory of the Elizabethan theatre. From those
actors Ayrer learned how to enliven his dramas with sensational
incidents and spectacular effects, and from them he borrowed
the character of the clown. His plays, however, are in spite of
his foreign models, hardly more dramatic, in the true sense of the
word, than those of Hans Sachs, and they are inferior to the latter
in poetic qualities. The plots of two of his comedies, Von
der schonen Phoenicia and Von der schonen Sidea, were evidently
drawn from the same sources as those of Shakespeare's Much
Ado about Nothing and Tempest.

Ayrers Dramen, edited by A. von Keller, have been published by
the Stuttgart Lit. Verein (1864-1865). See also L. Tieck, Deutsches
Theater (1817); A. Cohn, Shakespeare in Germany (1885), which
contains a translation of the two plays mentioned above; J. Titt-
mann, Schauspiele des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts (1888).

AYRSHIRE, a south-western county of Scotland, bounded N.
by Renfrewshire, E. by Lanarkshire and Dumfriesshire, S.E. by

AYRSHIRE

75

Kirkcudbrightshire, S. by Wigtownshire and W. by the Firth of
Clyde. It includes off its coast the conspicuous rock of Ailsa
Craig, 10 m. W. of Girvan, Lady Island, 3 m. S.W. of Troon,
and Horse Island, off Ardrossan. Its area is 724,523 acres or
1 142 sq. m., its coast-line being 70 m. long. In former times the
shire was divided into the districts of Cunninghame (N. of the
Irvine), Kyle (between the Irvine and the Boon), and Carrick
(S. of the Boon), and these terms are still occasionally used.
Kyle was further divide,! by the Ayr into King's Kyle on the
north and Kyle Stewart. Robert Bruce was earl of Carrick,
a title now borne by the prince of Wales. The county is politic-
ally divided into North and South Ayrshire, the former compris-
ing Cunninghame and the latter Kyle and Carrick. The surface
is generally undulating with a small mountainous tract in the
north and a larger one in the south and south-east. The principal
hills are Black Craig (2298 ft.), 5 m. south-east of New Cumnock;
Enoch (1865 ft.), 5 m. east of Balmellington ; Polmaddie (1750
ft.) 2 m. south-east of Burr; Stake on the confines of Ayrshire
and Renfrewshire, and Corsancone (1547 ft.), 3 m. north-east
of New Cumnock. None of the rivers is navigable, but their
varied and tranquil beauty has made them better known than
many more important streams. The six most noted are the
Stinchar (c soft), Girvan, Boon, Ayr, Irvine and Garnock.
Of these the Ayr is the longest. It rises at Glenbuck, on the
border of Lanarkshire, and after a course of some 38 m. falls into
the Firth of Clyde at the county town which, with the county, is
named from it. The scenery along its banks from Sorn down-
wards— passing Catrine, Ballochmyle, Barskimming, Sundrum,
Auchencruive and Craigie — is remarkably picturesque. The
lesser streams are numerous, but Burns's verse has given pre-
eminence to the Afton, the Cessnock and the Lugar. There are
many lochs, the largest of which is Loch Boon, 5! m. long, the
source of the river of the same name. From Loch Finlas, about
20 m. south-east of Ayr, the town derives its water-supply.
The Nith rises in Ayrshire and a few miles of its early course
belong to the county.

Geology. — The greater portion of the hilly region in the south of
the county forms part of the Silurian tableland of the south of
Scotland. Along its north margin there is a belt of elevated ground
consisting mainly of Old Red Sandstone strata, while the tract of
fertile low ground is chiefly occupied by younger Palaeozoic rocks.
The Silurian belt stretching eastwards from the mouth of Loch Ryan
to the Merrick range is composed of grits, greywackes and shales with
thin leaves of black shales, containing graptolites of Upper Llandeilo
age which are repeated by folding and cover a broad area. Near
their northern limit Radiolarian cherts, mudstones and lavas of
Arenig age rise from underneath the former along anticlines striking
north-east and south-west. In the Ballantrae region there is a
remarkable development of volcanic rocks — lavas, tuffs and agglo-
merates— of Arenig age, their horizon being denned by graptolites
occurring in cherty mudstones and black shales interleaved in lavas
and agglomerates. These volcanic materials are pierced by ser-
pentine, gabbro and granite. The serpentine forms two belts running
inland from near Bennane Head and from Burnfoot, being typically
developed on Balhamie Hill near Colmonell. Gabbro appears on
the shore north of Lendalfoot, while on the By ne and Grey Hills south
of Girvan there are patches of granite and quartz-diorite which seem
to pass into more basic varieties. These volcanic and plutonic
rocks and Radiolarian cherts are covered unconformably by con-
glomerates (Bennan Hill near Straiten and Kennedy's Pass) which
are associated with limestones of Upper Llandeilo age that have
been wrought in the Stinchar valley and at Craighead. South of the
river Girvan there is a sequence from Llandeilo — Caradoc to Llan-
dovery — Tarannon strata, excellent sections of which are seen on
the shore north of Kennedy's Pass and in Penwhapple Glen near
Girvan. Llandovery strata again appear north of the Girvan at
Daitly, where they form an inher surrounded by the Old Red Sand-
stone and Carboniferous formations. Representatives of Wenlock
rocks form a narrow belt near the village of Straiton. Some of the
Silurian sediments of the Girvan province are highly fossiliferous, but
the order of succession is determined by the graptolites. Near Muir-
kirk and in the Douglas Water there are infiers of Wenlock, Ludlow
and Downtonian rocks, coming to the surface along anticlines trun-
cated by faults and surrounded by Old Red Sandstone and Carboni-
ferous strata. In the south-east of the county there is a part of the
large granite mass that stretches from Loch Boon south to Loch
Bee, giving rise to wild scenery and bounded by the high ground near
the head of the Girvan Water, boulders of which have been dis-
tributed over a wide area during the glacial period. Along the
northern margin of the uplands the Lower Old Red Sandstone is

usually faulted against the Silurian strata, but on Hadyard Hill
south of the Girvan valley they rest on the folded and denuded
members of the latter system. The three divisions of this formation
are well represented. The lower group of conglomerates and sand-
stones are well displayed on Hadyard Hill and on the tract near May-
bole; the middle volcanic series on the shore south of the Heads of
Ayr and from the Stinchar valley along the Old Red belt towards
Balmellington and New Cumnock; while the upper group, com-
prising conglomerates and sandstones, form a well-marked syn-
clinal ford at Corsancone north-east of New Cumnock. The Upper
Old Red Sandstone appears as a fringe round the south-west margin
of the Carboniferous rocks of the county, and it rises from beneath
them on the shore of the Firth of Clyde south of Wemyss Bay.
The Carboniferous strata of the central low ground form a great
basin traversed by faults, all the subdivisions of the system being
represented save the Millstone Grit. Round the north and north-
east margin there is a great development of volcanic rocks — lavas,
tuffs and agglomerates — belonging to the Calciferous Sandstone
series, and passing upwards into the Carboniferous Limestone. The
lower limestones of the latter division are typically represented near
Balry and Beith, where in one instance they reach a thickness of over
top ft. They are followed by the coal-bearing group (Edge coals of
Midlothian) which have been wrought in the Balry and Patna
districts and at Bailly. The position of the Millstone Grit is occupied
by lavas and tuffs, extending almost continually as a narrow fringe
round the northern margin of the Coal Measures from Saltcoats by
Kilmaurs to the Crawfordland Water. The workable coals of the
true Coal Measures have a wide distribution from Kilwinning by
Kilmarnock to Galston and again in the districts of Coylton, Bal-
mellington, Lugar and Cumnock. These members are overlaid by a
set of upper barren red sandstones, probably the equivalents of the
red beds of Uddingston, Balkeith and Wemyss in Fife, visible in the
ravines of Lugar near Ochiltree and of Ayr at Catrine. In various
parts of the Ayrshire coalfield the coal-seams are rendered useless by
intrusive sheets of dolerite as near Kilmarnock and Balmellington.
In the central part of the field there is an oval-shaped area of red
sandstones now grouped with the Trias, extending from near Tar-
bolton to Mauchline, where they are largely worked for building stone.
They are underlaid by a volcanic series which forms a continuous belt
between the underlying red sandstones of the Coal Measures and
the overlying Trias. In the north part of the county, as near Wemyss
Bay, the strata are traversed by dykes of dolerite and basalt trending
in a north-west direction and probably of Tertiary age.

Agriculture. — There has been no lack of agricultural enterprise.
With a moist climate, and, generally, a rather heavy soil, drainage
was necessary for the successful growth of green crops. Up to
about 1840, a green crop in the rotation was seldom seen, except
on porous river-side land, or on the lighter farms of the lower
districts. In the early part of the igth century lime was a
powerful auxiliary in the inland districts, but with repeated ap-
plications it gradually became of little avail. Thorough draining
gave the next great impetus. Enough had been done to test
its efficacy before the announcement of Sir Robert Peel's drainage
loan, after which it was rapidly extended throughout the county.
Green-crop husbandry, and the liberal use of guano and other
manures, made a wonderful change in the county, and immensely
increased the amount of produce. Potatoes are now extensively
grown, the coast-lands supplying the markets of Scotland and the
north of England. Of roots, turnips, carrots and mangolds are
widely cultivated, heavy crops being obtained by early sowing
and rich manuring. Oats form the bulk of the cereal crop, but
whea,t and barley are also grown. High fanning has developed
the land enormously. Bairying has received particular attention.
Bunlop cheese was once a well-known product. Part of it was
very good; but it was unequal in its general character, and
unsaleable in English markets. Bissatisfied with the inferior
commercial value of their cheese in comparison with some English
varieties, the Ayrshire Agricultural Association brought a Somer-
set farmer and his wife in 1855 to teach the Cheddar method, and
their effort was most successful. Cheddar cheese of first-rate
quality is now made in Ayrshire, and the annual cheese show
at Kilmarnock is the most important in Scotland. The Ayrshire
breed of cews are famous for the quantity and excellence of their
milk. Great numbers of cattle, sheep and pigs are raised for the
market, and the Ayrshire horse is in high repute.

Other Industries. — Ayrshire is the principal mining county
in Scotland and has the second largest coalfield. There is a
heavy annual output also of iron ore, pig iron and fire-clay.
The chief coal districts are Ayr, Balmellington, Patna, Maybole,
Brongan, Irvine, Coylton, Stevenston, Beith, Kilwinning,

76

AYRTON— AYSCOUGH

Dairy, Kilbirnie, Dreghorn, Kilmarnock, Galston, Hurlford,
Muirkirk, Cumnock and New Cumnock. Ironstone occurs
chiefly at Patna, Coylton, Dairy, Kilbirnie, Dreghorn and
Cumnock, and there are blast furnaces at most of these towns.
A valuable whetstone is quarried at Bridge of Stair on the Ayr
— the Water-of-Ayr stone. The leading manufactures are im-
portant. At Catrine are cotton factories and bleachfields, and
at Ayr and Kilmarnock extensive engineering works, and
carpet, blanket and woollens, boot and shoe factories. Cotton,
woollens, and other fabrics and hosiery are also manufactured
at Dairy, Kilbirnie, Kilmaurs, Beith and Stewarton. An
extensive trade in chemicals is carried on at Irvine. Near
Stevenston works have been erected in the sandhills for the
making of dynamite and other explosives. There are large
lace curtain factories at Galston, Newmilns and Darvel, and at
Beith cabinet-making is a considerable industry. Shipbuilding
is conducted at Troon, Ayr, Irvine and Fairlie, which is famous
for its yachts. The leading ports are Ardrossan, Ayr, Girvan,
Irvine and Troon. Fishing is carried on in the harbours and
creeks, which are divided between the fishery districts of Greenock
and Ballantrae.

Communications. — The Glasgow & South-Western railway
owns most of the lines within the shire, its system serving all
the industrial towns, ports and seaside resorts. Its trunk line
via Girvan to Stranraer commands the shortest sea passage to
Belfast and the north of Ireland, and its main line via Kilmarnock
communicates with Dumfries and Carlisle and so with England.
The Lanarkshire & Ayrshire branch of the Caledonian railway
company also serves a part of the county. For passenger
steamer traffic Ardrossan is the principal port, there being
services to Arran and Belfast and, during the season, to Douglas
in the Isle of Man. Millport, on Great Cumbrae, is reached by
steamer from Fairlie.

Population and Administration. — The population of Ayrshire
in 1891 was 226,386, and in 1901, 254,468, or 223 to the sq. m.
In 1901 the number of persons speaking Gaelic only was 17.
The chief towns, with populations in 1901 are: Ardrossan
(6077), Auchinleck (2168), Ayr (29,101), Beith (4963), Cumnock
(3088), Dairy (5316), Darvel (307°). Galston (4876), Girvan
(4024), Hurlford (4601), Irvine (9618), Kilbirnie (457 1), Kil-
marnock (35,091), Kilwinning (4440), Largs (3246), Maybole
(5892), Muirkirk (3892), Newmilns {4467), Saltcoats (8120),
Stevenston (6554), Stewarton (2858), Troon (4764). The
county returns two members to parliament, who represent
North and South Ayrshire respectively. Ayr (the county town)
and Irvine are royal burghs and belong to the Ayr group of
parliamentary burghs, and Kilmarnock is a parliamentary
burgh of the Kilmarnock group. Under the county council
special water districts, drainage districts, and lighting and
scavenging districts have been formed. The county forms a
sheriffdom, and there are resident sheriffs-substitute at Ayr
and Kilmarnock, who sit also at Irvine, Beith, Cumnock and
Girvan. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, but there
are a considerable number of voluntary schools, besides secondary
schools at Ayr, Irvine, Kilmarnock and Beith, while Kilmarnock
Dairy School is a part of the West of Scotland Agricultural
College established in 1899. In addition to grants earned by
the schools, the county and borough councils expend a good
deal of money upon secondary and technical education, towards
which contributions are also made by the Glasgow and West of
Scotland Technical College and the Kilmarnock Dairy School.
The technical classes, subsidized at various local centres, em-
brace instruction in agriculture, mining, engineering, plumbing,
gardening, and various science and art subjects.

History. — Traces of Roman occupation are found in Ayrshire.
At the time of Agricola's campaigns the country was held by
the Damnonii, and their town of Vandogara has been identified
with a site at Loudoun Hill near Darvel,where a serious encounter
with the Scots took place. On the withdrawal of the Romans,
Ayrshire formed part of the kingdom of Strathclyde and ulti-
mately passed under the sway of the Northumbrian kings.
Save for occasional intertribal troubles, as that in which the

Scottish king Alpin was slain at Dulmellington in the 9th
century, the annals are silent until the battle of Largs in 1263,
when the pretensions of Haakon of Norway to the sovereignty
of the Isles were crushed by the Scots under Alexander III.
A generation later William Wallace conducted a vigorous
campaign in the shire. He surprised the English garrison at
Ardrossan, and burned the barns of Ayr in which the forces of
Edward I. were lodged. Robert Bruce is alleged to have been
born at Turnberry Castle, some 12 m. S.W. of Ayr. In 1307
he defeated the English at Loudoun Hill. Cromwell paid the
county a hurried visit, during which he demolished the castle
of Ardrossan and is said to have utilized the stones in rearing
a fort at Ayr. Between 1660 and 1688 the sympathies of the
county were almost wholly with the Covenanters, who suffered
one of their heaviest reverses at Airds Moss — a morass between
the Ayr and Lugar, — their leader, Richard Cameron, being
killed (20th of July 1680). The county was dragooned and the
Highland host ravaged wherever it went. The Hanoverian
succession excited no active hostility if it evoked no enthusiasm.
Antiquarian remains include cairns in Galston, Som and other
localities; a road supposed to be a work of the Romans, which
extended from Ayr, through Dalrymple and Dalmellington,
towards the Solway; camps attributed to the Norwegians or
Danes on the hills of Knockgeorgan and Dundonald; and the
castles of Loch Doon, Turnberry, Dundonald, Portencross,
Ardrossan and Dunure. There are ruins of celebrated abbeys
at Kilwinning and Crossraguel, and of Alloway's haunted church,
famous from their associations.

See James Paterson, " History of the County of Ayr." Trans-
actions of Ayrshire and Galloway Archaeological Associations,
Edinburgh, 1879-1900; John Smith, Prehistoric Man in Ayrshire
(London, 1895) ; William Robertson, History of Ayrshire (Edinburgh,
1894); Archibald Sturrock, "On the Agriculture of Ayrshire,"
Transactions of Highland and Agricultural Society; D. Lands-
borough, Contributions to Local History (Kilmarnock, 1878).

AYRTON, WILLIAM EDWARD (1847-1908), English physi-
cist, was born in London on the I4th of September 1847. He
was educated at University College, London, and in 1868 went
out to Bengal in the service of the Indian Government Telegraph
department. In 1873 he was appointed professor of physics
and telegraphy at the Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio.
On his return to London six years later he became professor of
applied physics at the Finsbury College of the City and Guilds
of London Technical Institute, and in 1884 he was chosen
professor of electrical engineering at the Central Technical
College, South Kensington. He published, both alone and
jointly with others, a large number of papers on physical, and
in particular electrical, subjects, and his name was especially
associated, together with that of Professor John Perry, with the
invention of a long series of electrical measuring instruments.
He died in London on the 8th of November 1908. His wife,
Mrs Hertha Ayrton, whom he married in 1885, assisted him in
his researches, and became known for her scientific work on the
electric arc and other subjects. The Royal Society awarded her
one of its Royal medals in 1906.

AYSCOUGH, SAMUEL (1745-1804), English librarian and
index-maker, was born at Nottingham in 1745. His father, a
printer and stationer, having ruined himself by speculation,
Samuel Ayscough left Nottingham for London, where he obtained
an engagement in the cataloguing department of the British
Museum. In 1782 he published a two-volume catalogue of
the then undescribed manuscripts in the museum. About 1785
he was appointed assistant librarian at the museum, and soon
afterwards took holy orders. In 1786 he published an index
to the first seventy volumes of the Monthly Review, and in 1796
indexed the remaining volumes. Both this index and his
catalogue of the undescribed manuscripts in the museum were
private ventures. His first official work was a third share in the
British Museum catalogue of 1787, and he subsequently cata-
logued the ancient rolls and charters, 16,000 in all. In 1789 he
produced the first two volumes of the index to the Gentleman's
Magazine,a,nd in 1790 the first index-concordance to Shakespeare.
He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and has been called

AYSCUE— AYUB KHAN

77

" The Prince of Indexers." He died at the British Museum on
the 30th of October 1804.

AYSCUE (erroneously ASKEW or AYSCOUGH), SIR GEORGE
(d. 1671), British admiral, came of an old Lincolnshire family.
Beyond the fact that he was knighted by Charles I., nothing
is known of his career until in 1646 he received a naval command.
Through the latter years of the first civil war, Ayscue seems to
have acted as one of the senior officers of the fleet. In 1648,
when Sir William Batten went over to Holland with a portion
of his squadron, Ayscue's influence kept a large part of the fleet
loyal to the Parliament, and in reward for this service he was
appointed the following year admiral of the Irish Seas. For his
conduct at the relief of Dublin he received the thanks of Parlia-
ment, and in 1651 he was employed under Blake in the operations
for the reduction of Scilly. He was next sent to the West Indies
in charge of a squadron destined for the conquest of Barbadoes
and the other islands still under royalist control. This task
successfully accomplished, he returned to take part in the first
Dutch War. In this he played a prominent part, but the in-
decisive battle off Plymouth (August i6th, 1652) cost him his
command, though an annuity was assigned him. For some
years Sir George Ayscue lived in retirement, but the later years
of the Commonwealth he spent in Sweden, Cromwell having
despatched him thither as naval adviser. At the Restoration
he returned, and became one of the commissioners of the navy,
but on the outbreak of the second Dutch War in 1664 he once
more hoisted his flag as rear-admiral of the Blue, and took part
in the battle of Lowestoft (June 3rd, 1665). In the great Four
Days' Battle (June nth-i4th, 1666) he served with Monck as
admiral of the White. His flagship, the " Prince Royal," was
taken on the third day, and he himself remained a prisoner in
Holland till the peace. It seems doubtful whether he ever again
flew his flag at sea, and the date of his death is supposed to be
1671. Lely's portrait of Sir George Ayscue is in the Painted
Hall at Greenwich.

AYTOUN, or AYTON, SIR ROBERT (1570-1638), Scottish
poet, son of Andrew Aytoun of Kinaldie, Fifeshire, was born in
1570. He was educated at the university of St Andrews, where
he was incorporated as a student of St Leonard's College in 1584
and graduated M.A. in 1588. He lived for some years in France,
and on the accession of James VI. to the English throne he wrote
in Paris a Latin panegyric, which brought him into immediate
favour at court. He was knighted in 1612. He held various
lucrative offices, and was private secretary to the queens of
James I. and Charles I. He died in London and was buried
in Westminster Abbey on the 28th of February 1638. His
reputation with his contemporaries was high, both personally
and as a writer, though he had no ambition to be known as the
latter.

Aytoun's remains are in Latin and English. In respect of the
latter he is one of the earliest Scots to use the southern standard
as a literary medium. The Latin poems include the panegyric
already referred to, an Epicedium in obitum Thoma Rhodi; Basia,
sine Strena ad Jacobum Hayum; Lessus in fnnere Raphaelis
Thorei; Carina Caro', and minor pieces, occasional and epitaphic.
His first English poem was Diophantus and Ckaridora (to which
he refers in his Latin panegyric to James). He has left a number
of pieces on amatory subjects, including songs and sonnets.

Aytoun's Latin poems are printed in Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum
(Amsterdam, 1637), i. pp. 40-75. His English poems are preserved
in a MS. in the'British Museum (Add. MSS. 10,308), which was pre-
pared by his nephew, Sir John Aytoun. Both were collected by
Charles Rogers in The Poems of Sir Robert Aytoun (London, privately
printed, 1871). This edition is unsatisfactory, though it is better
than the first issue by the same editor in 1844. Additional poems
are included which cannot be ascribed to Aytoun, and which in some
cases have been identified as the work of others. The poem " I
do confess thou'rt smooth and fair " may be suspected, and the old
version of " Auld Lang Syne " and " Sweet Empress " are cer-
tainly not Aytoun's. Some of the English poems are printed in
Watson's Collection (1706-1711) and in the Bannatyne Miscellany,
i. p. 299 (1827). There is a memoir of Aytoun in Rogers's edition,
and another by Grosart in the Diet, of Nat. Bios. Particulars of his
public career will be found in the printed Calendars of State Papers
and Register of the Privy Council of the period.

AYTOUN, WILLIAM EDMONSTODNE (1813-1865), Scottish
poet, humorist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh
on the 2ist of June 1813. He was the only son of Roger Aytoun,
a writer to the signet, and the family was of the same stock as
Sir Robert Aytoun noticed above. From his mother, a woman
of marked originality of character and considerable culture,
he derived his distinctive qualities, his early tastes in literature,
and his political sympathies, his love for ballad poetry, and his
admiration for the Stuarts. At the age of eleven he was sent to
the Edinburgh Academy, passing in due time to the university.
In 1833 he spent a few months in London for the purpose of
studying law; but in September of that year he went to study
German at Aschaffenburg, where he remained till April 1834.
He then resumed his legal pursuits in his father's chambers,
was admitted a writer to the signet in 1835, and five years later
was called to the Scottish bar. But, by his own confession,
though he " followed the law, he never could overtake it." His
first publication — a volume entitled Poland, Homer, and other
Poems, in which he gave expression to his eager interest in the
state of Poland — had appeared in 1832. While in Germany he
made a translation in blank verse of the first part of Faust;
but, forestalled by other translations, it was never published.
In 1836 he made his earliest contributions to Blackviood's
Magazine, in translations from Uhland; and from 1839 till
his death he remained on the staff of Blackwood. About 1841
he became acquainted with Mr (afterwards Sir) Theodore Martin,
and in association with him wrote a series of light humorous
papers on the tastes and follies of the day, in which were inter-
spersed the verses which afterwards became popukr as the
Bon Gaultier Ballads (1855). The work on which his reputation
as a poet chiefly rests is the Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers (1848;
29th ed. 1883). In 1845 he was appointed professor of rhetoric
and belles letlres at Edinburgh University. His lectures were
very attractive, and the number of students increased correspond-
ingly. His services in support of the Tory party, especially
during the Anti-Corn-Law struggle, received official recognition
in his appointment (1852) as sheriff of Orkney and Zetland.
In 1854 appeared Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy, in which he
attacked and parodied the writings of Philip James Bailey,
Sydney Dobell and Alexander Smith; and two years later he
published his Botkwell, a Poem. Among his other literary works
are a Collection of the Ballads of Scotland (1858), a translation
of the Poems and Ballads of Goethe, executed in co-operation
with his friend Theodore Martin (1858), a small volume on the
Life and Times of Richard I. (1840), written for the Family
Library, and a novel entitled Norman Sinclair (1861), many of
the details in which are taken from incidents in his own experience.
In 1860 Aytoun was elected honorary president of the Associated
Societies of Edinburgh University. In 1859 he lost his first
wife, a daughter of John Wilson (Christopher North), to whom
he was married in 1849, and this was a great blow to him. His
mother died in November 1861, and his own health began to fail.
In December 1863 he married Miss Kinnear. He died at Black-
hills, near Elgin, on the 4th of August 1865.

See Memoir of W. E. Aytoun (1867), by Sir Theodore Martin, with
an appendix containing some of his prose essays.

AYUB KHAN (1855- ), Afghan prince, son of Shere Ali
(formerly amir of Afghanistan), and cousin of the amir Abdur
Rahman, was born about 1855. During his father's reign little is
recorded of him, but after Shere Ali's expulsion from Kabul by the
English, and his death in January 1879, Ayub took possession of
Herat, and maintained himself there until June 1881, when he
invaded Afghanistan with the view of asserting his claims to the
sovereignty, and in particular of gaining possession of Kanda-
har, still in the occupation of the British. He encountered the
British force commanded by General Burrows at Maiwand on
the 27th of July, and was able to gain one of the very few pitched
battles that have been won by Asiatic leaders over an army
under European direction. His triumph, however, was short-
lived; while he hesitated to assault Kandahar he was attacked
by Sir Frederick (afterwards Lord) Roberts, at the close of the
latter's memorable march from Kabul, and utterly discomfited,

AYUNTAMIENTO— AZALEA

zoth of September 1880. He made his way back to Herat, where
he remained for some time unmolested. In the summer of
1881 he again invaded Afghanistan, and on the anniversary of
the battle of Maiwand obtained a signal victory over Abdur
Rahman's lieutenants, mainly through the defection of a Durani
regiment. Kandahar fell into his hands, but Abdur Rahman
now took the field in person, totally defeated Ayub, and expelled
him from Herat. He took refuge in Persia, and for some time
lived quietly in receipt of an allowance from the Persian govern-
ment. In 1887 internal troubles in Afghanistan tempted him to
make another endeavour to seize the throne. Defeated and
driven into exile, he wandered for some time about Persia, and
in November gave himself up to the British agent at Meshed.
He was sent to India to live as a state prisoner.

AYUNTAMIENTO, the Spanish name for the district over
which a town council has administrative authority; it is used
also for a town council, and for the town -hall. The word is de-
rived from the Latin adjungere, and originally meant " maeting."
In some parts of Spain and in Spanish America the town council
was called the cabildo or chapter, from the Latin capitulum.
The ayuntamiento consisted of the official members, and of
regidores or regulators, who were chosen in varying proportions
from the " hidalgos " or nobles (hijos de algo, sons of somebody)
and the " pecheros," or commoners, who paid the pecho, or
personal tax; pecho (Lat. pectus) is in Spanish the breast, and
then by extension the person. The regidores of the ayunta-
mientos, or lay cabildos, were checked by the royal judge or
corregidor, who was in fact the permanent chairman or president.
The distinction between hidalgo and pechero has been abolished
in modern Spain, but the powers and the constitution of ayun-
tamientos have been subject to many modifications.

AYUTHIA, a city of Siam, now known to the Siamese as Krung
Kao or " the Old Capital," situated in 100° 32' E., 14° 21' N.
Pop. about 10,000. The river Me Nam, broken up into a network
of creeks, here surrounds a large island upon which stand the
ruins of the famous city which was for more than four centuries
the capita] of Siam. The bulk of the inhabitants live in the
floating houses characteristic of lower Siam, using as thorough-
fares the creeks to the edges of which the houses are moored.
The ruins of the old city are of great archaeological interest, as
are the relics, of which a large coDection is housed in the local
museum. Outside the town is an ancient masonry enclosure
for the capture of elephants, which is still periodically used.
Ayuthia is on the northern main line of the state railways, 42 m.
from Bangkok. Great quantities of paddi are annually sent by
river and rail to Bangkok, in return for which cloth and other
goods are imported to supply the wants of the agriculturist
peasantry. There is no other trade. Ayuthia is the chief town
of one of the richest agricultural provincial divisions of Siam and
is the headquarters of a high commissioner. The government
offices occupy spacious buildings, once a royal summer retreat;
the government is that of an ordinary provincial division
(Monton).

Historically Ayuthia is the most interesting spot in Siam.
Among the innumerable ruins may be seen those of palaces,
pagodas, churches and fortifications, the departed glories of
which are recorded in the writings of the early European travellers
who first brought Siam within the knowledge of the West, and laid
the foundations of the present foreign intercourse and trade.
The town was twice destroyed by the Burmese, once in 1555
and again in 1767, and from the date of the second destruction
it ceased to be the capital of the country.

AZAlS, PIERRE HYACINTHE (1766-1845), French philo-
sopher, was born at Soreze and died at Paris. He spent his
early years as a teacher and a village organist. At the outbreak
of the Revolution he viewed it with favour, but was soon
disgusted at the violence of its methods. A critical pamphlet
drew upon him the hatred of the revolutionists, and it was
not until 1806 that he was able to settle in Paris. In 1809 he
published his great work, Des Compensations dans les destinies
humaines (sth ed. 1846), which pleased Napoleon so much that
he made its author professor at St Cyr. In 1811 he became

inspector of the public library at Avignon, and from 1812 to
1815 he held the same position at Nancy. The Restoration
government at first suspected him as a Bonapartist, but at
length granted him a pension. From that time he occupied
himself in lecturing and the publication of philosophical works.
In the Compensations he sought to prove that, on the whole,
happiness and misery are equally balanced, and therefore that
men should accept the government which is given them rather
than risk the horrors of revolution. " Le principe de I'in6galite
naturelle et essentielle dans les destinees humaines conduit
inevitablement au fanatisme revolutionnaire ou au fanatisme
religieux." The principles of compensation and equilibrium
are found also in the physical universe, the product of matter
and force, whose cause is God. Force, naturally expansive and
operating on the homogeneous atoms which constitute elemental
matter, is subject to the law of equilibrium, or equivalence of
action and reaction. The development of phenomena under
this law may be divided into three stages — the physical, the
physiological, the intellectual and moral. The immaterial in
man is the expansive force inherent in him. Moral and political
phenomena are the result of the opposing forces of progress and
preservation, and their perfection lies in the fulfilment of the
law of equilibrium or universal harmony. This may be achieved
in seven thousand years, when man will vanish from the world.
In an additional five thousand, a similar equilibrium will obtain
in the physical sphere, which will then itself pass away. In
addition to his philosophical work, Azais studied music under
his father, Pierre Hyacinthe Azais (1743-1796), professor of
music at Soreze and Toulouse, and composer of sacred music
in the style of Gossec. He wrote for the Revue musicale a series
of articles entitled Acoustique fondamentale (1831), containing
an ingenious, but now exploded, theory of «the vibration of the
air. His other works are: Systeme universel (8 vols., 1812);
Du Sort de I'homme (3 vols., 1820); Cours de philosophic (8 vols.,
1824), reproduced as Explication uniiierselle (3 vols., 1826-1828);
Jeunesse, maturite, religion, philosophic (1837); De la phrenologie,
du magnetisme, et de la folie (1843).

AZALEA, a genus of popular hardy or greenhouse plants,
belonging to the heath order (Ericaceae), and scarcely separable
botanically from Rhododendron. The beautiful varieties now
in cultivation have been bred from a few originals, natives of
the hilly regions of China and Japan, Asia Minor, and the
United States. They are perhaps unequalled as indoor decorative
plants. They are usually increased by grafting the half-ripened
shoots on the stronger-growing kinds, the shoots of the stock
and the grafts being in a similarly half-ripened condition, and
the plants being placed in a moist heat of 65°. Large plants of
inferior kinds, if healthy, may be grafted all over with the
choicer sorts, so as to obtain a large specimen in a short time.
They require a rich and fibrous peat soil, with a mixture of sand
to prevent its getting water-logged. The best time to pot azaleas
is three or four weeks after the blooming is over. The soil
should be made quite solid to prevent its retaining too much
water. To produce handsome plants, they must while young
be stopped as required. Specimens that have got leggy may be
cut back just before growth commences. The lowest temperature
for them during the winter is about 35°, and during their season
of growth from 55° to 65° at night, and 75° by day, the atmo-
sphere being at the same time well charged with moisture. They
are liable to the attacks of thrips and red spider, which do great
mischief if not promptly destroyed.

The following are some well-known species: — A. arborescens
(Pennsylvania), a deciduous shrub 10-20 ft. high; A. calendulacea
(Carolina to Pennsylvania), a beautiful deciduous shrub 2-6 ft.
high, with yellow, red, orange and copper-coloured flowers;
A. hispida, a North American shrub, 10-15 ft- high, flowers
white edged with red; A. indica (China), the so-called Indian
azalea, a shrub 3-6 ft. or more high, the original of numerous
single and double varieties, many of the more vigorous of which
are hardy in southern England and Ireland; A. nudifiora, a
North American shrub, 3-4 ft. high, which hybridizes freely with
A. calendulacea, A. pontica and others, to produce single and

AZAMGARH— AZEGLIO

79

double forms of a great variety of shades; A. pontica (Levant,
Caucasus, &c.), 4-6 ft. high, with numerous varieties differing
in the colour of the flowers and the tint of the leaves; A. sinensis
(China and Japan), a beautiful shrub, 3-4 ft. high, with orange-
red or yellow bell-shaped flowers, hardy in the southern half of
England, large numbers of varieties being in cultivation under
the name of Japanese azaleas.

AZAMGARH, or AZIMGARH, a city and district of British India,
in the Gorakhpur division of the United Provinces. The town
is situated on the river Tons, and has a railway station. It is
said to have been founded about 1665 by a powerful landholder
named Azim Khan, who owned large estates in this part of the
country. Pop. (1901) 18,835.

The area of the district is 2207 sq. m. It is bounded on the
N. by the river Gogra, separating it from Gorakhpur district;
on the E. by Ghazipur district and the river Ganges; on the S.
by the districts of Jaunpur and Ghazipur; and on the W. by
Jaunpur and Fyzabad. The portion of the district lying along
the banks of the Gogra is a low-lying tract, varying considerably
in width; south of this, however, the ground takes a slight rise.
The slope of the land is from north-west to south-east, but the
general drainage is very inadequate. Roughly speaking, the
district consists of a series of parallel ridges, whose summits are
depressed into beds or hollows, along which the rivers flow;
while between the ridges are low-lying rice lands, interspersed
with numerous natural reservoirs. The soil is fertile, and very
highly cultivated, bearing magnificent crops of rice, sugar-cane
and indigo. There are several indigo factories. A branch of
the Bengal & North-Western railway to Azamgarh town was
opened in 1898. In 1901 the population was 1,529,785, showing
a decrease of 1 1 % in the decade. The district was ceded to the
Company in 1801 by the wazirs of Lucknow. In 1857 it became
a centre of mutiny. On the 3rd of June 1857 the I7th Regiment
of Native Infantry mutinied at Azamgarh, murdered some of
their officers, and carried off the government treasure to Fyzabad.
The district became a centre of the fighting between the Gurkhas
and the rebels, and was not finally cleared until October 1858 by
Colonel Kelly.

AZAN (Arabic for " announcement "), the call or summons
to public prayers proclaimed by the Muezzin (crier) from the
mosque twice daily in all Mahommedan countries. In small
mosques the Muezzin at Azan stands at the door or at the side
of the building; in large ones he takes up his position in the
minaret. The call translated runs: "God is most great!"
(four times), "I testify there is no God but God!" (twice),
" I testify that Mahomet is the apostle of God! " (twice), " Come
to prayer!" (twice), "Come to salvation!" (twice), "God is
most great!" (twice), "There is no God but God!" To the
morning Azan are added the words, " Prayer is better than
sleep! " (twice). The devout Moslem has to make a set response
to each phrase of the Muezzin. At first these are mere repetitions
of Azan, but to the cry "Come to prayer!" the listener must
answer, " I have no power nor strength but from God the most
High and Great." To that of " Come to salvation! " the formal
response is, " What God willeth will be: what He willeth not
will not be." The recital of the Azan must be listened to with
the utmost reverence. The passers in the streets must stand
still, all those at work must cease from their labours, and those
in bed must sit up.

The Muezzin, who is a paid servant of the mosque, must stand
with his face towards Mecca and with the points of his forefingers
in his ears while reciting Azan. He is specially chosen for good
character, and Azan must not be recited by any one unclean,
by a drunkard, by the insane, or by a woman. The summons
to prayers was at first simply " Come to prayer! " Mahomet,
anxious to invest the call with the dignity of a ceremony, took
counsel of his followers. Some suggested the Jewish trumpet,
others the Christian bell, but according to legend the matter
was finally settled by a dream: — " While the matter was under
discussion, Abdallah, a Khazrajite, dreamed that he met a man
clad in green raiment, carrying a bell. Abdallah sought to buy it,
saying that it would do well for bringing together the assembly

of the faithful. ' I will show thee a better way,' replied the
stranger; ' let a crier cry aloud " God is most great, &c." ' On
awaking, Abdallah went to Mahomet and told him his dream,"
and A/an was thereupon instituted.

AZARA, DON JOSE NICHOLAS DE (1731-1804), Spanish
diplomatist, was born in 1731 at Barbunales, Aragon, and was
appointed in 1765 Spanish agent and procurator-general, and in
1785 ambassador at Rome. During his long residence there he
distinguished himself as a collector of Italian antiquities and as
a patron of art. He was also an able and active diplomatist,
took a leading share in the difficult and hazardous task of the
expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain, and was instrumental in
securing the election of Pius VI. He withdrew to Florence when
the French took possession of Rome in 1798, but acted on behalf
of the pope during his exile and after his death at Valence
in 1799. He was afterwards Spanish ambassador in Paris. In
that post it was his misfortune to be forced by his government
to conduct the negotiations which led to the treaty of San Ilde-
fonso, by which Spain was wholly subjected to Napoleon. Azara
was friendly to a French alliance, but his experience showed him
that his country was being sacrificed to Napoleon. The First
Consul liked him personally, and found him easy to influence.
Azara died, worn out, in Paris in 1804. His end was undoubtedly
embittered by his discovery of the ills which the French alliance
must produce for Spain.

Several sympathetic notices of Azara will be found in Thiers,
Consulat et Empire. See also Reinado de Carlos IV, by Gen. J.
Gomez de Arteche, in the Historia General dc Espafla, published by
the R. Acad. de la Historia, Madrid, 1892, &c. There is a Notice
historique sur le Chevalier d' Azara by Bourgoing (1804).

His younger brother, DON FELIX DE AZARA (1746-1811),
spent twenty years in South America as a commissioner for
delimiting the boundary between the Spanish and Portuguese
territories. He made many observations on the natural history
of the country, which, together with an account of the discovery
and history of Paraguay and Rio de la Plata, were incorporated
in his principal work, Voyage dans I'Amtrique meridional* depuis
1781 jusqu'en 1801, published at Paris in 1809 in French from
his MS. by C. A. Walckenaer.

AZARIAH, the name of several persons mentioned in the
Old Testament, (i) One of Solomon's " princes," son of Zadok
the priest (i Kings iv. 2), was one of several Azariahs among the
descendants of Levi (i Chron. vi. 9, 10, 13, 36; 2 Chron. xxvi. 17).
(2) The son of Nathan, a high official under King Solomon
(i Kings iv. 5). (3) King of Judah, son of Amaziah by his wife
Jecholiah (2 Kings xv. i, 2), also called Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi. i).

(4) Son of Ethan and great-grandson of Judah (i Chron. ii. 8).

(5) Son of Jehu, of the posterity of Judah (i Chron. ii. 38). (6)
A prophet in the reign of Asa, king of Judah (2 Chron. xv. i).

(7) Two sons of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah (2 Chron. xxi. a).

(8) King of Judah, also called Ahaziah and Jehoahaz, son of
Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi. 17; xxii. i, 6). (9) The son of Jeroham,
and (10) the son of Obed, were made " captains of hundreds "
by Jehoiada the priest (2 Chron. xxiii. i). (n) Son of Hilkiah
and grandfather of Ezra the Scribe (Ezra vii. i ; Neh. vii. 7, viii.
7, x. 2). (12) Son of Maaseiah, one of those who under the
commission of Artaxerxes restored the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii.
23). (13) Son of Hoshaiah, an opponent of the prophet Jeremiah
(Jer. xliii. 2). (14) One of the companions in captivity of the
prophet Daniel, called Abednego by Nebuchadrezzar, by whom
with two companions he was cast into a " burning fiery furnace "
for refusing to worship the golden image set up by that monarch
(Dan. i. 6, iii. 8-30).

AZAY-LE-RIDEAU, a town of western France, in the depart-
ment of Indre-et-Loire, on the Indre, 16 m. S.W. of Tours by
rail. Pop. (1006) 1453. The town has a fine Renaissance
chateau, well restored in modern times, with good collections of
furniture and pictures.

AZEGLIO, MASSIMO TAPARELLI, MARQUIS D' (1798-1866),
Italian statesman and author, was born at Turin in October 1798,
descended from an ancient and noble Piedmontese family.
His father, Cesare d'Azeglio, was an officer in the Piedmontese
army and held a high position at court; on the return of Pope

8o

AZERBAIJAN

Pius VII. to Rome after the fall of Napoleon, Cesare d'Azeglio
was sent as special envoy to the Vatican, and he took his son,
then sixteen years of age, with him as an extra attache. Young
Massimo was given a commission in a cavalry regiment, which
he soon relinquished on account of his health. During his
residence in Rome he had acquired a love for art and music,
and he now determined to become a painter, to the horror of
his family, who belonged to the stiff and narrow Piedmontese
aristocracy. His father reluctantly consented, and Massimo
settled in Rome, devoting himself to art. He led an abstemious
life, maintaining himself by his painting for several years. But
he was constantly meditating on the political state of Italy.
In 1830 he returned to Turin, and after his father's death in 1831
removed to Milan. There he remained for twelve years, moving
in the literary and artistic circles of the city. He became the
intimate of Alessandro Manzoni the novelist, whose daughter
he married; thenceforth literature became his chief occupation
instead of art, and he produced two historical novels, Niccolo
dei Lapi and Ettore Fieramosca, in imitation of Manzoni, and with
pronounced political tendencies, his object being to point out
the evils of foreign domination in Italy and to reawaken national
feeling. In 1845 he visited Romagna as an unauthorized political
envoy, to report on its conditions and the troubles which he
foresaw would break out on the death of Pope Gregory XVI.
The following year he published his famous pamphlet Degli
ultimi casi di Romagna at Florence, in consequence of which
he was expelled from Tuscany. He spent the next few months
in Rome, sharing the general enthusiasm over the supposed
liberalism of the new pope, Pius IX. ; like V. Gioberti and Balbo
he believed in an Italian confederation under papal auspices,
and was opposed to the Radical wing of the Liberal party. His
political activity increased, and he wrote various other pamphlets,
among which was / lutti di Lombardia (1848).

On the outbreak of the first war of independence, d'Azeglio
donned the papal uniform and took part under General Durando
in the defence of Vicenza, where he was severely wounded. He
retired to Florence to recover, but as he opposed the democrats
who ruled in Tuscany, he was expelled from that country for the
second time. He was now a famous man, and early in 1849
Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, invited him to form a cabinet.
But realizing how impossible it was to renew the campaign, and
" not having the heart to sign, in such wretched internal and
external conditions, a treaty of peace with Austria " (Corre-
spondance politique, by E. Rendu), he refused. After the defeat
of Novara(23rd of March 1849), Charles Albert abdicated and was
succeeded by Victor Emmanuel II. D'Azeglio was again called
on to form a cabinet, and this time, although the situation was
even more difficult, he accepted, concluded a treaty of peace,
dissolved the Chamber, and summoned a new one to ratify it.
The treaty was accepted, and d'Azeglio continued in office for
the next three years. While all the rest of Italy was a prey to
despotism, in Piedmont the king maintained the constitution
intact in the face of the general wave of reaction. D'Azeglio
conducted the affairs of the country with tact and ability,
improving its diplomatic relations, and opposing the claims of
the Roman Curia. He invited Count Cavour, then a rising young
politician, to enter the ministry in 1850. Cavour and Farini,
also a member of the cabinet, made certain declarations in the
Chamber (May 1852) which led the ministry in the direction of
an alliance with Rattazzi and the Left. Of this d'Azeglio dis-
approved, and therefore resigned office, but on the king's request
he formed a new ministry, excluding both Cavour and Farini.
In October, however, owing to ill-health and dissatisfaction with
some of his colleagues, as well as for other reasons not quite clear,
he resigned once more and retired into private life, suggesting
Cavour to the king as his successor.

For the next four years he lived modestly at Turin, devoting
himself once more to art, although he also continued to take
an active interest in politics, Cavour always consulting him on
matters of moment. In 1855 he was appointed director of the
Turin art gallery. In 1859 he was given various political missions,
including one to Paris and London to prepare the basis for a

general congress of the powers on the Italian question. When
war between Piedmont and Austria appeared inevitable he re-
turned to Italy, and was sent as royal commissioner by Cavour
to Romagna, whence the papal troops had been expelled. After
the peace of Villafrauca, d'Azeglio was recalled with orders to
withdraw the Piedmontese garrisons; but he saw the danger of
allowing the papal troops to reoccupy the province, and after
a severe inner struggle left Bologna without the troops, and
interviewed the king. The latter approved of his action, and
said that his orders had not been accurately expressed; thus
Romagna was saved. That same year he published a pamphlet
in French entitled De la Politique et du droit chretien an point
de vue de la question italienne, with the object of inducing
Napoleon III. to continue his pro-Italian policy. Early in 1860
Cavour appointed him governor of Milan, evacuated by the
Austrians after the battle of Magenta, a position which he held
with great ability. But, disapproving of the government's
policy with regard to Garibaldi's Sicilian expedition and the
occupation by Piedmont of the kingdom of Naples as inoppor-
tune, he resigned office.

The death of his two brothers in 1862 and of Cavour in 1861
caused Massimo great grief, and he subsequently led a com-
paratively retired life. But he took part in politics, both as a
deputy and a writer, his two chief subjects of interest being
the Roman question and the relations of Piedmont (now the
kingdom of Italy) witli Mazzini and the other revolutionists.
In his opinion Italy must be unified by means of the Franco-
Piedmontese army alone, all connexion with the conspirators
being eschewed, while the pope should enjoy nominal sovereignty
over Rome, with full spiritual independence, the capital of Italy
being established elsewhere, but the Romans being Italian citizens
(see his letters to E. Rendu and his pamphlet Le queslioni
ur genii). He strongly disapproved of the convention of 1864
between the Italian government and the pope. The last few years
of d'Azeglio 's life were spent chiefly at his villa of Cannero, where
he set to work to write his own memoirs. He died of fever on
the isth of January 1866.

Massimo d'Azeglio was a very attractive personality, as well
as an absolutely honest patriot, and a characteristic example
of the best type of Piedmontese aristocrat. He was cautious
and conservative; in his general ideas on the liberation of Italy
he was wrong, and to some extent he was an amateur in politics,
but of his sincerity there is no doubt. As an author his political
writings are trenchant and clear, but his novels are somewhat
heavy and old-fashioned, and are interesting only if one reads
the political allusions between the lines.

Besides a variety of newspaper articles and pamphlets, d'Azeglio's
chief works are the two novels Ettore Fieramosca(l8^)a.nd Niccolo dei
Lapi( 1841), and a volume of autobiographical memoirs entitled I Miei
Ricordi, a most charming work published after his death, in 1866, but
unfortunately incomplete. See in addition to the Ricordi, L. Carpi's
// Risorgimento Italiano,vo\. i. pp. 288 sq . and the Souvenirs historiques
of Constance d'Azeglio, Massimo's niece (Turin, 1884). (L. V.*)

AZERBAIJAN (also spelt ADERBIJAN; the Azerbadegan of
medieval writers,the A thropalakana.nd A /ro/>ateneof theancients),
the north-western and most important province of Persia. It is
separated from Russian territory on the N. by the river Aras
(Araxes), while it has the Caspian Sea, Gilan and Khamseh
(Zenjan) on the E., Kurdistan on the S., and Asiatic Turkey
on the W. Its area is estimated at 32,000 sq. m.; its population
at i | to 2 millions, comprising various races, as Persians proper,
Turks, Kurds, Syrians, Armenians, &c. The country is superior
in fertility to most provinces of Persia, and consists of a regular
succession of undulating eminences, partially cultivated and
opening into extensive plains. Near the centre of the province
the mountains of Sahand rise in an accumulated mass to the height
cf 1 2 ,000 ft. above the sea. The highest mountain of the province
is in its eastern part, Mount Savelan, with an elevation of 15,792
ft., and the Talish Mountains, which run from north to south,
parallel to and at no great distance from the Caspian, have an
altitude of 9000 ft. The principal rivers are the Aras and Kizil
Uzain, both receiving numerous tributaries and flowing into the
Caspian, and the Jaghatu, Tatava, Murdi, Aji and others, which

AZIMUTH— AZO COMPOUNDS

81

drain into the Urmia lake. The country to the west of the lake,
with the districts of Selmas and Urmia, is the most prosperous
part of Azerbaijan, yet even here the intelligent traveller laments
the want of enterprise among the inhabitants. Azerbaijan is one
of the most productive provinces of Persia. The orchards and
gardens in which many villages are embosomed yield delicious
fruits of almost every description, and great quantities, dried,
are exported, principally to Russia. Provisions are cheap and
abundant, but there is a lack of forests and timber trees. Lead,
copper, sulphur, orpiment, also lignite, have been found within
the confines of the province; also a kind of beautiful, variegated,
translucent marble, which takes a high polish, is used in the
construction of palatial buildings, tanks, baths, &c., and is known
as Maragha, or Tabriz marble. The climate is healthy, not hot
in summer, and cold in winter. The cold sometimes is severely
felt by the poor classes owing to want of proper fuel, for which a
great part of the population has no substitute except dried cow-
dung. Snow lies on the mountains for about eight months in the
year, and water is everywhere abundant. The best soils when
abundantly irrigated yield from 50- to 6o-fold, and the water
for this purpose is supplied by the innumerable streams which
intersect the province. The natives of Azerbaijan make excellent
soldiers, and about a third of the Persian army is composed of
them. The province is divided into a number of administra-
tive sub-provinces or districts, each with a hakim, governor
or sub-governor, under the governor-general, who under the
Kajar dynasty has always been the heir-apparent to the throne
of Persia, assisted by a responsible minister appointed by the
shah. The administrative divisions are as follows: — Tabriz
and environs; Uskuh; Deh-Kharegan; Maragha; Miandoab;
Saujbulagh; Sulduz; Urmia; Selmas; Khoi; Maku; Gerger;
Merend; Karadagh; Arvanek; Talish; Ardebil; Mishkin;
Khalkhal; Hashtrud; Garmrud; Afshar; Sain Kaleh; Ujan;
Sarab. The revenue amounts to about £200,000 per annum in
cash and kind, and nearly all of it is expended in the province
for the maintenance of the court of the heir-apparent, the salaries
and pay to government officials, troops, pensions, &c. (A.H.-S.)

AZIMUTH (from the Arabic), in astronomy, the angular
distance from the north or south point of the horizon to the foot
of the vertical circle through a heavenly body. In the case of a
horizontal line the azimuth is its deviation from the north or
south direction.

AZO (c. 1150-1230), Italian jurist. This Azo, whose name is
sometimes written Azzo and Azzolenus, and who is occasionally
described as Azo Soldanus, from the surname of his father, is to
be distinguished from two other famous Italians of the same
name, viz. Azo Lambertaccius, a canonist of the i3th century,
professor of canon law at the university of Bologna, author of
Questiones in jus canonicum, and Azo de Ramenghis, a canonist of
the 1 4th century, also a professor of canon law at Bologna, and
author of Repetitiones super libra Decretorum. Few particulars
are known as to the life of Azo, further than that he was born
at Bologna about the middle of the i2th century, and was a
pupil of Joannes Bassianus, and afterwards became professor
of civil law in the university of his native town. He also
took an active part in municipal life, Bologna, with the other
Lombard republics, having gained its municipal independence.
Azo occupied a very important position amongst the glossators,
and his Readings on the Code, which were collected by his pupil,
Alessandro de Santo Aegidio, and completed by the additions
of Hugolinus and Odofredus, form a methodical exposition of
Roman law, and were of such weight before the tribunals that it
used to be said, " Chi non ha Azzo, non vada a palazzo." Azo
gained a great reputation as a prbfessor, and numbered amongst
his pupils Accursius and Jacobus Balduinus. He died about 1 230.

AZO COMPOUNDS, organic substances of the type R-N:N-R'
(where R = an aryl radical and R' = a substituted alkyl, or
aryl radical). They may be prepared by the reduction of nitro
compounds in alkaline solution (using zinc dust and alkali, or a
solution of an alkaline stannite as a reducing agent) ; by oxida-
tion of hydrazo compounds; or by the coupling of a diazotized
amine and any compound of a phenolic or aminic type, provided

that there is a free para position in the amine or phenol. They
may also be obtained by the molecular rearrangement of the
diazoamines, when these are warmed with the parent base and
its hydrochloride. This latter method of formation has been
studied by H. Goldschmidt and R. U. Reinders (Btr., 1896, 29,
p. 1369), who found that the reaction is monomolecular, and
that the velocity constant of the reaction is proportional to the
amount of the hydrochloride of the base present and also to
the temperature, but is independent of the concentration of
the diazoamine. The azo compounds are intensely coloured,
but are not capable of being used as dycstuffs unless they
contain salt-forming, acid or basic groups (see DYEING). By
oxidizing agents they are converted into azoxy compounds, and
by reducing agents into hydrazo compounds or amines.

Azo-benzene, CjHjNiNQHs, discovered by E. Mitscherlich
in 1834, may be prepared by reducing nitrobenzene in alcoholic
solution with zinc dust and caustic soda; by the condensation
of nitrosobenzene with aniline in hot glacial acetic acid solution;
or by the oxidation of aniline with sodium hypobromite. It
crystallizes from alcohol in orange red plates which melt at
68° C. and boil at 293° C. It does not react with acids or alkalis,
but on reduction with zinc dust in acetic acid solution yields
aniline.

Amino-azo Compounds may be prepared as shown above.
They are usually yellowish brown or red in colour, the presence
of more amino groups leading to browner shades, whilst the
introduction of alkylated amino groups gives redder shades.
They usually crystallize well and are readily reduced. When
heated with aniline and aniline hydrochloride they yield indu-
lines (<?.».). Amino-azo-benzene, QHs-Nz-CeHiNH^ crystallizes
in yellow plates or needles and melts at 126° C. Its constitu-
tion is determined by the facts that it may be prepared by
reducing nitro-azo-benzene by ammonium sulphide and that
by reduction with stannous chloride it yields aniline and
meta-phenylene diamine. Diamino-azo-benzene (chrysoidine),
C6H<i-N2-CsH3(NHz)2, first prepared by O. Witt (Ber., 1877,
10, p. 656), is obtained by coupling phenyl diazonium chloride
with meta-phenylene diamine. It crystallizes in red octa-
hedra and dyes silk and wool yellow. Triamino-azo-benzene
(meta-aminobenzene-azo-meta-phenylene diamine or Bismarck
brown, phenylene brown, vesuvine, Manchester brown),
NH2-C8H4-N2-C6Hj(NH2)2, is prepared by the action of nitrous
acid on meta-phenylene diamine. It forms brown crystals
which are readily soluble in hot water, and it dyes mordanted
cotton a dark brown. On the composition of the commercial
Bismarck brown see E. Tauber and F. Walder {Ber., 1897, 30,
pp.2in, 2899; 1900,33, p. 2116). Alkylated amino-azo-benzenes
are also known, and are formed by the coupling of diazonium
salts with alkylated amines, provided they contain a free para
position with respect to the amino group. In these cases it has
been shown by H. Goldschmidt and A. Merz (Ber., 1897, 30,
p. 670) that the velocity of formation of the amino-azo compound
depends only on the nature of the reagents and not on the con-
centration, and that in coupling the hydrochloride of a tertiary
amine with diazobenzene suiphonic acid the reaction takes place
between the acid and the base set free by the hydrolytic dissocia-
tion of its salt, for the formation of the amino-azo compound,
when carried out in the presence of different acids, takes place
most rapidly with the weakest acid (H. Goldschmidt and F. Buss,
Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2075).

Methyl orange (helianthin, gold orange, Mandarin orange),
(CHs)2N-C6H4-N2-C6H4S03Na, is the sodium salt of para-
dimethylaminobenzene-azo-benzene suiphonic acid. It is an
orange crystalline powder which is soluble in water, forming a
yellow solution. The free acid is intensely red in colour. Methyl
orange is used largely as an indicator. The constitution of methyl
orange follows from the fact that on reduction by stannous
chloride in hydrochloric acid solution it yields sulphanilic acid
and para-aminodimethyl aniline.

Oxyazo Compounds. — The oxyazo compounds are prepared by
adding a solution of a diazonium salt to a cold slightly alkaline
solution of a phenol. The diazo group takes up the para position

82

AZOIMIDE

with regard to the hydroxyl group, and if this be prevented it
then goes into the ortho position. It never goes directly into the
meta position.

The constitution of the oxyazo compounds has attracted much
attention, some chemists holding that they are true azophenols
of the type R-N2-RrOH, while others look upon them as having
a quinonoid structure, i.e. as being quinone hydrazones, type
R-NH-N:Ri:O. The first to attack the purely chemical side
were Th. Zincke (Ber., 1883,16, p. 2929; 1884, 17, p. 3026; 1887,

20, p. 3171) and R. Meldola (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1889, 55, pp. 114,
603). Th. Zincke found that the products obtained by coupling
a diazonium salt with o-naphthol, and by condensing phenyl-
hydrazine with o-naphthoquinone, were identical; whilst
Meldola acetylated the azophenols, and split the acetyl pro-
ducts by reduction in acid solution, but obtained no satisfactory
results. K. Auwers (Zeit.f. phys. Chem., 1896, 21, p. 355; Ber.,
1900, 33, p. I302)examined the questionfromthe physico-chemical
standpoint by determining the freezing-point depressions, the
result being that the para-oxyazo compounds give abnormal
depressions and the ortho-oxyazo compounds give normal
depressions; Auwers then concluded that the para compounds
are phenolic and the ortho compounds are quinone hydrazones
or act as such. A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1899, 32, pp. 590, 3089) con-
siders that the oxyazo compounds are to be classed as pseudo-
acids, possessing in the free condition the configuration of quinone
hydrazones, their salts, however, being of the normal phenolic
type. J. T. Hewitt (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1900, 77, pp. 99 et seq.)
nitrated para-oxyazobenzene with dilute nitric acid and found
that it gave a benzene-azo-ortho-nitrophenol, whereas quinones
are not attacked by dilute nitric acid. Hewitt has also attacked
the problem by brominating the oxyazobenzenes, and has shown
that when the hydrobromic acid produced in the reaction is
allowed to remain in the system, a brombenzene-azo-phenol is
formed, whilst if it be removed (by the addition of sodium
acetate) bromination takes place in the phenolic nucleus; con-
sequently the presence of the mineral acid gives the azo compound
a pseudo-quinonoid character, which it does not possess if the
mineral acid be removed from the sphere of the reaction.

Para-oxyazobenzene (benzene-azo-phenol), CSH6N: N(i)-CeH4-
OH (4), is prepared by coupling diazotized aniline with phenol
in alkaline solution. It is an orange-red crystalline compound
which melts at 154° C. Ortho-oxyazobenzene, CeH6N:N(i)C6Iic
OH(2), was obtained in small quantity by E. Bamberger
(Ber., 1900, 33, p. 3189) simultaneously with the para com-
pound, from which it may be separated by distillation in a
current of steam, the ortho compound passing over with the
steam. It crystallizes in orange-red needles which melt at
82-3-83° C. On reduction with zinc dust in dilute sal-
ammonjac solution, it yields ortho-aminophenol and aniline.
Meta-oxyazobenzene, CjH6N: N(i)C6Hi-OH(3), was obtained in
1903 by P. Jacobson (Ber., 1903, 36, p. 4093) by condensing
ortho-anisidine with diazo benzene, the resulting compound
being then diazotized and reduced by alcohol to benzene-azo-
meta-anisole, from which meta-oxyazobenzene was obtained
by hydrolysis with aluminium chloride. It melts at 1 1 2-1 14° C.
and is easily reduced to the corresponding hy.drazo compound.

Diazo- Amines. — The diazo-amines, R-N : N-NHRi, are ob-
tained by the action of primary amines on diazonium salts;
by the action of nitrous acid on a free primary amine, an iso-
diazohydroxide being formed as an intermediate product which
then condenses with the amine; and by the action of nitros-
amines on primary amines. They are crystalline solids, usually
of a yellow colour, which do not unite with acids; they are
readily converted into amino-azo compounds (see above) and are
decomposed by the concentrated halogen acids, yielding haloid
benzenes, nitrogen and an amine. Acid anhydrides replace the
imino-hydrogen atom by acidyl radicals, and boiling with water
converts them into phenols. They combine with phenyl iso-
cyanate to form urea derivatives (H. Goldschmidt, Ber., 1888,

21, p. 2578), and on reduction with zinc dust (preferably in alco-
holic acetic acid solution) they yield usually a hydrazine and an
amine. Diazoamino benzene, C«H5-N : N-NHCeHj, was first

obtained by P. Griess(Ann., 1862, 121, p. 238). It crystallizes in
yellow laminae,which melt at 96° C. and explode at slightly higher
temperatures. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and benzene.
Diazoimino benzene, C6H6Nj, is also known. It may be pre-
pared by the action of ammonia on diazobenzene perbromide;
by the action of hydroxylamine on a diazonium sulphate (K.
Heumann and L. Oeconomides, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 372); and by
the action of phenylhydrazine on a diazonium sulphate. It is
a yellow oil which boils at 59° C. (12 mm.), and possesses a
stupefying odour. It explodes when heated. Hydrochloric
acid converts it into chloraniline, nitrogen being eliminated;
whilst boiling sulphuric acid converts it into aminophenol.

i i

Azoxy Compounds, R-N-0-N-R', are usually yellow or red
crystalline solids which result from the reduction of nitro or
nitroso compounds by heating them with alcoholic potash
(preferably using methyl alcohol). They may also be obtained
by the oxidation of azo compounds. When reduced (in acid
solution) they yield amines; distillation with reduced iron
gives azo compounds, and warming with ammonium sulphide
gives hydrazo compounds. Concentrated sulphuric acid converts
azoxybenzene into oxyazobenzene (O. Wallach, Ber., 1880, 13,
p. 525). Azoxybenzene, (C6H6N)2O, crystallizes from alcohol in
yellow needles, which melt at 36° C. On distillation, it yields
aniline and azobenzene. Azoxybenzene is also found among
the electro-reduction products of nitrobenzene, when the reduc-
tion is carried out in alcoholic-alkaline solution.

The mixed azo compounds are those in which the azo group
•N: N- is united with an aromatic radical on the one hand, and
with a radical of the aliphatic series on the other. The most easily
obtained mixed azo compounds are those formed by the union
of a diazonium salt with the potassium or sodium salt of a
nitroparaffin (V. Meyer, Ber., 1876, 9, p. 384):
C6HSN2-NO,+CH3-CH(N02)K = KN05+C,H6N2-CH(N02)CH,.

Benzene-azo-nitro-ethane.

Those not containing a nitro group may be prepared by the
oxidation of the corresponding mixed hydrazo compounds with
mercuric oxide. E. Bamberger (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 455) has shown
that the nitro-alkyl derivatives behave as though they possess
the constitution of hydrazones, for on heating with dilute
alkalies they split more or less readily into an alkaline nitrite
and an acid hydrazide:
C,H6NH-N : C(NOj)CH3+NaOH = NaNO2+C,HsNH-NH-CO-CH,.

Benzene-azo-methane, C8H6-N2-CHj, is a yellow oil which
boils at 150° C. and is readily volatile in steam. Benzene-azo-
ethane, C6H6-N2-C2H6, is a yellow oil which boils at about 180°
C. with more or less decomposition. On standing with 60 %
sulphuric acid for some time, it is converted into the isomeric
acetaldehyde-phenylhydrazone,C6H6NH-N: CH-CHa(.Ber., 1896,
29, p. 794).

The diazo cyanides, C«H6N2-CN, and carboxylic acids, C«H6-
N2-COOH, may also be considered as mixed azo derivatives.
Diazobenzenecyanide, C6H6N2-CN, is an unstable oil, formed
when potassium cyanide is added to a solution of a diazonium
salt. Phenyl-azo-carboxylic acid, C6H6-N2-COOH, is obtained
in the form of its potassium salt when phenylsemicarbazide is
oxidized with potassium permanganate in alkaline solution
(J. Thiele, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2600). It crystallizes in orange-red
needles and is decomposed by water. The corresponding amide,
phenyl-azo-carbonamide, C6H6N2-CONH2, also results from the
oxidation of phenylsemicarbazide (Thiele, loc. cit.), and forms
reddish-yellow needles which melt at 114° C. When heated
with benzaldehyde to 120° C. it yields diphenyloxytriazole,
(C,H5)2CN,C(OH).

AZOIMIDE, or HYDRAZOIC ACID, N3H, a compound of nitrogen
and hydrogen, first isolated in 1890 by Th. Curtius (Berichte,
1890, 23, p. 3023). It is the hydrogen compound corresponding
to P. Greiss' diazoimino benzene, CjHsNs, which is prepared by
the addition of ammonia to diazobenzene perbromide.

Curtius found that benzoylglycollic acid gavebenzoyl hydrazine
with hydrazine hydrate:

NH,-NH-CHS-COOH.

AZORES

(Ethyl bcnzoate may be employed instead of benzoyl glycollic
acid for this reaction.) This compound gave a nitroso compound
with nitrous acid, which changed spontaneously into benzoyl-
azoimide by loss of water:

C.H6CO NH NH,+HONO = H2O+C,H,CO N(NO) NH,.

O N,.

The resulting benzoylazoimide is easily hydrolysed by boiling
with alcoholic solutions of caustic alkalis, a benzoate of the
alkali metal and an alkali salt of the new acid being obtained;
the latter is precipitated in crystalline condition on standing.

An improved method of preparation was found in the use of
hippuric acid, which reacts with hydrazine hydrate to form
hippuryl hydrazine, CeH6CONH-CH2CONH-NH2, and this sub-
stance is converted by nitrous acid into diazo-hippuramide,
CjEsCONH-CHj-CO-NH-Nz-OH, which is hydrolysed by the
action of caustic alkalis with the production of salts of hydrazoic
acid. To obtain the free acid it is best to dissolve the diazo-
hippuramide in dilute soda, warm the solution to ensure the
formation of the sodium salt, and distil the resulting liquid
with dilute sulphuric acid. The pure acid may be obtained
by fractional distillation as a colourless liquid of very unpleasant
smell, boiling at 30° C., and extremely explosive. It is soluble in
water, and the solution dissolves many metals (zinc, iron, &c.)
with liberation of hydrogen and formation of salts (azoimides,
azides or hydrazoates). All the salts are explosive and readily
interact with the alkyl iodides. In its properties it shows
some analogy to the halogen acids, since it forms difficultly
soluble lead, silver and. mercurous salts. The metallic salts all
crystallize in the anhydrous condition and decompose on heating,
leaving a residue of the pure metal. The acid is a " weak " acid,
being ionized only to a very slight extent in dilute aqueous
solution.

E. Noelting and E. Grandmougin (Berichle, 1891, 24, p. 2546)
obtained azoimide from dinitraniline, CeHjtNOz^-NI^, by
diazotization and conversion of the diazo compound into the
perbromide, (NOj^CeHs-^-Bra. This compound is then decom-
posed by ammonia, dinitrophenylhydrazoate being formed,
which on hydrolysis with alcoholic potash gives potassium
hj'drazoate (azide) and dinitrophenol. The solution is then
acidified and distilled, when azoimide passes over. Somewhat
later, they found that it could be prepared from diazobenzene
imide, provided a nitro group were present in the ortho or para
position to the diazo group. The para-nitro compound is dropped
slowly into a cold solution of one part of caustic potash in ten
parts of absolute alcohol; the solution becomes dark red in
colour and is then warmed for two days on the water bath. After
the greater portion of the alcohol has distilled off, the solution
is acidified with sulphuric acid and the azoimide distilled over.
The yield obtained is only about 40% of that required by
theory, on account of secondary reactions taking place. Ortho-
nitro-diazobenzene imide only yields 30%.

W. Wislicenus (Berichte, 1892, 25, p. 2084) has prepared the
sodium salt by passing nitrous oxide over sodamide at high
temperatures. The acid can also be obtained by the action of
nitrous acid on hydrazine sulphate; by the oxidation of
hydrazine by hydrogen peroxide and sulphuric acid (A. W.
Browne, J. Anter. Ghent. Soc., 1905, 25, p. 251), or by
ammonium metavanadate (A. W. Browne and F. F. Shetterly,
Abst. J.C.S., 1907, ii. p. 863).

Ammonium azoimide, Nj-NH^, may be prepared by boiling
diazohippuramide with alcoholic ammonia, until no more
ammonia escapes, the following reaction taking place:
C,HtCO NHCH2CONH-NZ-OH+2NH3 = N3 NH4+H20+

C6HSCO NH-CH2-CO-NH,.

The liquid is then allowed to stand for twelve hours, and the
c.ear alcoholic solution is decanted from the precipitated hip-
puramide. To the alcoholic solution, four times its volume of
ether is added, when the ammonium salt is precipitated. It is
then filtered, washed with ether, and air-dried. The salt is
readily soluble in water, and is only feebly alkaline. It is ex-
tremely explosive. Hydrazine azoimide, NjHB, is also known.

Chloroazoimide, Cl-Nj, the chloride corresponding to azoimide,

was obtained by F. Raschig (Ber., 1908, 41, p. 4194) as a
highly explosive colourless gas on acidifying a mixture of
sodium azide and hypochlorite with acetic or boric acid.

AZORES (A fores), or WESTERN ISLANDS, an archipelago in the
Atlantic Ocean, belonging to the kingdom of Portugal. Pop..
(1900) 256,291; area, 922 sq. m. The Azores extend in an
oblique line from N.W. to S.E., between 36° 55' and 39* 55' N.,
and between 25° and 31° 16' W. They are divided into three
widely severed groups, rising from a depth of more than 2§ m. '
The south-eastern group consists of St Michael's (Sao Miguel)
and St Mary (Santa Maria), with Formigas; the central, of

Scale. 1:6.500.000

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Fayal (Faial), Pico, St George (Sao Jorge), Terceira and Graciosa;
the north-western, of Flores and Corvo.

The nearest continental land is Cape da Roca on the Portuguese
coast, which lies 830 m. E. of St Michael's; while Cape Cantin,
the nearest point on the African mainland, is more than 900 m.
distant, and Cape Race in Newfoundland, the nearest American
headland, is more than 1000 m. Thus the Azores are the
farthest from any continent of all the island groups in the
Atlantic; but they are usually regarded as belonging to Europe,
as their climate and flora are European in character.

Physical Description. — The aspect of all the islands is very
similar in general characteristics, presenting an elevated and

84

AZORES

undulating outline, with little or no tableland, and rising into
peaks, of which the lowest, that of Corvo, is 350 ft., and the
highest that of Pico, 7612 ft. above sea-level. The lines of sea-
coast are, with few exceptions, high and precipitous, with bases
•of accumulated masses of fallen rock, in which open bays, or
scarcely more enclosed inlets, form the harbours of the trading
towns. The volcanic character of the whole archipelago is
obvious, and has been abundantly confirmed by the numerous
earthquakes and eruptions which have taken place since its
discovery. Basalt and scoria are the chief erupted materials.
Hitherto Flores, Corvo and Graciosa have been quite exempt,
and Fayal has only suffered from one eruption (1672). The
centre of activity has for the most part been St Michael's, while
the neighbouring island of St Mary has altogether escaped. In
1444-1445 there was a great eruption at St Michael's, of which,
however, the accounts that have been preserved exaggerate the
importance. In 1522 the town of Villa Franca, at that time the
capital of the island, was buried, with all its 6000 inhabitants,
during a violent convulsion. In 1572 an eruption took place in
Pico; in 1580 St George was the scene of numerous outbursts;
and in 1614 a little town in Terceira was destroyed. In 1630,
1652, 1656, 1755, 1852, &c., St Michael's was visited with
successive eruptions and earthquakes, several of them of great
violence. On various occasions, as in 1638, 1720, 1811 and 1867,
subterranean eruptions have taken place, which have sometimes
been accompanied by the appearance of temporary islands. Of
these the most remarkable was thrown up in June 1811, about
half a league from the western extremity of St Michael's. It
was called Sabrina by the commander of the British man-of-war
of that name, who witnessed the phenomenon.

Climate. — The climate is particularly temperate, but the ex-
tremes of sensible heat and cold are increased by the humidity.
The range of the thermometer is from 45° Fahr., the lowest known
extreme, or 48°, the ordinary lowest extreme of January, to 82°,
the ordinary, or 86°, the highest known extreme of July, near
the level of the sea. Between these two points (both taken in
the shade) there is from month to month a pretty regular grada-
tion of increase or decrease, amounting to somewhat less than
four degrees. In winter the prevailing winds are from the north-
west, west and south; in summer the most frequent are the
north, north-east and east. The weather is often extremely
stormy, and the winds from the west and south-west render the
navigation of the coasts very dangerous.

Fauna. — The mammalia of the Azores are limited to the rabbit,
weasel, ferret, rat (brown and black), mouse and bat, in addition
to domestic animals. The game includes the woodcock, red
partridge (introduced in the i6th century), quail and snipe.
Owing to the damage inflicted on the crops by the multitude of
blackbirds, bullfinches, chaffinches and green canaries, a reward
was formerly paid for the destruction of birds in St Michael's,
and it is said that over 400,000 were destroyed in several succes-
sive years between 1875 and 1885. There are valuable fisheries
of tunny, mullet and bonito. The porpoise, dolphin and whale
are also common. Whale-fishing is a profitable industry, with
its headquarters at Fayal, whence the sperm-oil is exported.
Eels are found in the rivers. The only indigenous reptile is the
lizard. Fresh-water molluscs are unknown, and near the coast
the marine fauna is not rich; but terrestrial molluscs abound,
several species being peculiar to the Azores.

Flora. — The general character of the flora is decidedly
European, no fewer than 400 out of the 478 species generally
considered as indigenous belonging likewise to that continent,
while only four are found in America, and forty are peculiar to
the archipelago. Vegetation in most of the islands is remarkably
rich, especially in grasses, mosses, and ferns, heath, juniper, and
a variety of shrubs. Of tall-growing trees there was, till the
1 9th century, an almost total lack; but the Bordeaux pine,
European poplar, African palm-tree, Australian eucalyptus,
chestnut, tulip-tree, elm, oak, and many others, were then
successfully introduced. The orange, apricot, banana, lemon,
citron, Japanese medlar, and pomegranate are the common
fruits, and various other- varieties are more or less cultivated.

At one time much attention was given to the growing of sugar-
cane, but it has now for the most part been abandoned. The
culture of indigo, introduced in the i6th century, also belongs to
the past. A kind of fern (Dicksonia culcila), called by the natives
cabellinho, furnishes a silky material for the stuffing of mat-
tresses and is exported to Brazil and Portugal.

Population. — The inhabitants of the islands are mostly of
Portuguese origin, with a well-marked strain of Moorish and
Flemish blood. There is a high birth-rate and a low average
of infant mortality. A large proportion of the poorer classes,
especially among the older men and women, are totally illiterate,
but education tends to spread more rapidly than in Portugal
itself, owing to the custom of sending children to the United
States, where they are taught in the state schools. Negroes,
mulattoes, English, Scottish and Irish immigrants are present
in considerable numbers, especially in Fayal and St Michael's.
The total number of resident foreigners in 1900 was 1490.

Government. — The Azores are subdivided into three adminis-
trative districts named after their chief towns, i.e. Ponta
Delgada, the capital of St Michael's; Angra, or Angra do
Heroismo, the capital of Terceira; and Horta, the capital of
Fayal. St Michael's and St Mary are included in the district
of Ponta Delgada;. Terceira, St George and Graciosa, in that
of Angra; Pico, Fayal, Flores and Corvo, in that of Horta.
Four members are returned by Ponta Delgada to the parliament
in Lisbon, while each of the other districts returns two members.
Roman Catholicism is the creed of the majority, and Angra is
an episcopal see. For purposes of military administration the
islands form two commands, with their respective headquarters
at Angra and Ponta Delgada. Besides the frequent and regular
services of mails which connect the/ Azores with Portugal and
other countries, there is a cable frojn Lisbon to Villa Franca do
Campo, in St Michael's, and thence to Pico, Fayal, St George
and Graciosa. Fayal is connected with Waterville, in Ireland,
by a cable laid in 1901. At Angra and Ponta Delgada there are
meteorological stations. The principal seaports are Angra
(pop. 1900, 10,788), Ponta Delgada (17,620), and Horta (6574).

Trade. — The trade of the Azores, long a Portuguese monopoly,
is now to a great extent shared by the United Kingdom and
Germany, and is chiefly carried in British vessels. Textiles are
imported from Portugal; coal from Great Britain; sugar from
Germany, Madeira and the United States; stationery, hardware,
chemicals, paints, oils, &c., from the United Kingdom and
Germany. The exports consist chiefly of fruit, wine, natural
mineral waters and provisions. The trade in pineapples is
especially important. No fewer than 940,000 pineapples were
exported in 1902 and 1903, going in almost equal quantities to
London and Hamburg. The fruit is raised under glass. Pottery,
cotton fabrics, spirits, straw hats and tea are produced in the
district of Ponta Delgada; linen and woollen goods, cheese,
butter, soap, bricks and tiles, in that of Angra; baskets, mats,
and various ornamental articles made from straw, osier, and the
pith of dried fig- wood, in that of Horta.

The largest and most populous of the Azores is St Michael's,
which has an area of 297 sq. m., and in 1900 had 121,340 inhabit-
ants. Graciosa (pop. 8385; area, 17 sq. m.) and St George
(16,177; 4° sq. m.) form part of the central group. Graciosa
is noteworthy for the beauty of its scenery. Its chief towns are
Santa Cruzde Graciosa (2185) and Guadalupe (2717). The chief
towns of St George are Ribeira Seca (2817) and Velas (2009).

History. — It does not appear that the ancient Greeks and
Romans had any knowledge of the Azores, but from the number
of Carthaginian coins discovered in Corvo it has been supposed
that the islands must have been visited by that adventurous
people. The Arabian geographers, Edrisi in the 1 2th century,
and Ibn-al-Wardi in the i4th, describe, after the Canaries, nine
other islands in the Western Ocean, which are in all probability
the Azores. This identification is supported by various con-
siderations. The number of islands is the same; the climate
under which they are placed by the Arabians makes them north
of the Canaries; and special mention is made of the hawks or
buzzards, which were sufficiently numerous at a later period to

AZOTH— AZOXIMES

give rise to the present name (Port. A$or, a hawk). The Arabian
writers represent them as having been populous, and as having
contained cities of some magnitude; but they state that the
inhabitants had been greatly reduced by intestine warfare. The
Azores are first found distinctly marked in a map of 1351, the
southern group being named the Goat Islands (Cabreras); the
middle group, the Wind or Dove Islands (De Ventura sive de
Columbis); and the western, the Brazil Island (De Brazi) — the
word Brazil at that time being employed for any red dye-stuff.
In a Catalan map of the year 1375 Corvo is found as Corn Marini,
and Flores as Li Conigi; while St George is already designated
San Zone. It has been conjectured that the discoverers were
Genoese, but of this there is not sufficient evidence. It is plain,
however, that the so-called Flemish discovery by van der Berg
is only worthy of the name in a very secondary sense. According
to the usual account, he was driven on the islands in 1432, and
the news excited considerable interest at the court of Lisbon.
The navigator, Gonzalo Velho Cabral — not to be confounded
with his greater namesake, Pedro Alvarez Cabral — was sent to
prosecute the discovery. Another version relates that Prince
Henry the Navigator of Portugal had in his possession a map in
which the islands were laid down, and that he sent out Cabral
through confidence in its accuracy. The map had been presented
to him by his brother, Dom Pedro, who had travelled as far as
Babylon. Be this as it may, Cabral reached the island, which
he named Santa Maria, in 1432, and in 1444 took possession of
St Michael's. The other islands were all discovered by 1457.
Colonization had meanwhile been going on prosperously; and
in 1466 Fayal was presented by Alphonso V. to his aunt, Isabella,
the duchess of Burgundy. An influx of Flemish settlers followed ,
and the islands became known for a time as the Flemish Islands.
From 1580 to 1640 they were subject, like the rest of the
Portuguese kingdom, to Spain. At that time the Azores were
the grand rendezvous for the fleets on their voyage home from
the Indies; and hence they became a theatre of that maritime
warfare which was carried on by the English under Queen
Elizabeth against the Peninsular powers. One such expedition,
which took place in 1591, led to the famous sea-fight off Flores,
between the English ship " Revenge," commanded by Sir Richard
Grenville, and a Spanish fleet of fifty-three vessels. Under the
active administration of the marquis de Pombal (1699-1782), con-
siderable efforts were made for the improvement of the Azores,
but the stupid and bigoted government which followed rather
tended to destroy these benefits. Towards the beginning of the
igth century, the possession of the islands, was contested by
the claimants for the crown of Portugal. The adherents of the
constitution, who supported against Miguel the rights of Maria
(II.) da Gloria, obtained possession of Terceira in 1829, where
they succeeded in maintaining themselves, and after various
struggles, Queen Maria's authority was established over all the
islands. She resided at Angra from 1830 to 1833.

For a general account of the islands, see The Azores, by W. F.
Walker (London, 1886), and Madeira and the Canary Islands, with
the Azores, by A. S. Brown (London, 1901). On the fauna and flora
of the islands, the following books by H. Drouet are useful: —
Elements de la faune aforeenne (Paris, 1861); Mollusques marins
des ties Azores (1858), Lettres atoreennes (1862), and Catalogue de la
flore des ties Azores, precede de Vitineraire d'une voyage dans eel
archipel (1866). The progress of Azorian commerce is best shown
in the British and American consular reports. For history, see
La Conquista de las Azores en 1583, by C. Fernandez Duro (Madrid,
1886), and Histoire de la decouverte des ties Azores et de I'origine de
leur denomination d'Ues flamandes, by J. Mees (Ghent, 1901).

AZOTH, the name given by the alchemists to mercury, and
by Paracelsus to his universal remedy.

AZOTUS, the name given by Greek and Roman writers to
Ashdod, an ancient city of Palestine, now represented by a few
remains in the little village of 'Esdud, in the governmental
district of Acre. It was situated about 3 m. inland from the
Mediterranean, on the famous military route between Syria and
Egypt, about equidistant (18 m.) from Joppa and Gaza. As
one of the five chief cities of the Philistines and the seat of the
worship of Dagon (i Sam. v.; cf. i Mace. x. 83), it maintained,
down even to the days of the Maccabees, a vigorous though

somewhat intermittent independence against the power of the
Israelites, by whom it was nominally assigned to the territory of
Judah. In 711 B.C. it was captured by the Assyrians (Is. xx. i),
but soon regained its power, and was strong enough in the
next century to resist the assaults of Psammetichus, king of
Egypt, for twenty-nine years (Herod, ii. 157). Restored by the
Roman Gabinius from the ruins to which it had been reduced
by the Jewish wars (i Mace. v. 68, x. 77, xvi. 10), it was presented
by Augustus to Salome, the sister of Herod. The only New
Testament reference is in Acts viii. 40. Ashdod became the
seat of a bishop early in the Christian era, but seems never to
have attained any importance as a town. The Mount Azotus
of i Mace. ix. 15, where Judas Maccabeus fell, is possibly the
rising ground on which the village stands. A fine Saracenic
khan is the principal relic of antiquity at "Esdud.

AZOV, or Asov (in Turkish, Asak), a town of Russia, in the
government of the Don Cossacks, on the left bank of the southern
arm of the Don, about 20 m. from its mouth. The ancient
Tanais lay some 10 m. to the north. In the I3th century the
Genoese had a factory here which they called Tana. Azov was
long a place of great military and commercial importance.
Peter the Great obtained possession of it after a protracted
siege in 1696, but in 1711 restored it to the Turks; in 1739 it
was finally united to the Russian empire. Since then it has
greatly declined, owing to the silting up of its harbour and the
competition of Taganrog. Its population, principally engaged
in the fisheries, numbered 25,124 in 1000.

AZOV, SEA OF, an inland sea of southern Europe, communi-
cating with the Black Sea by the Strait of Yenikale, or Kerch,
the ancient Bosporus Cimmerius. To the Romans it was known
as the Palus Maeolis, from the name of the neighbouring people,
who called it in their native language Temarenda, or Mother of
Waters. It was long supposed to possess direct communication
with the Northern Ocean. In prehistoric times a connexion with
the Caspian Sea existed; but since the earliest historical times
no great change has taken place in regard to the character or
relations of the Sea of Azov. It lies between 45° 20' and 47° 18'
N. lat., and between 35" and 39° E. long., its length from south-
west to north-east being 230 m., and its greatest breadth no.
The area runs to 14,515 sq. m. It generally freezes from
November to the middle of April. The Don is its largest and,
indeed, its only very important affluent. Near the mouth of
that river the depth of the sea varies from 3 to 10 ft., and the
greatest depth does not exceed 45 ft. Of recent years, too, the
level has been constantly dropping, for the surface lies 4f ft.
higher than the surface of the Black Sea. Fierce and continuous
winds from the east prevail during July and August, and in the
latter part of the year those from the north-east and south-east
are not unusual; a great variety of currents is thus produced.
The water is for the most part comparatively fresh, but differs
considerably in this respect according to locality and current.
Fish are so abundant that the Turks describe it as Baluk-deniz,
or Fish Sea. To the west, separated from the main basin by the
long narrow sand-spit of Arabat, lie the remarkable lagoons and
marshes known as the Sivash, or Putrid Sea; here the water
is intensely salt. The Sea of Azov is of great importance
to Russian commerce; along its shores stand the cities of
Taganrog, Berdyansk, Mariupol and Yenikale.

AZOXIMES (furo [a.b.] diazoles), a class of organic compounds

which contain the ring system N ~CH>O. They may be
prepared by converting nitriles into amidoximes by the action
of hydroxylamine, the amidoximes so formed being then acylated
by acid chlorides or anhydrides. From these acyl derivatives
the elements of water are removed, either by simple heating
or by boiling their aqueous solution; this elimination is accom-
panied by the formation of the azoxime ring. Thus

NH2OH ... _ boil with

C,H,CN >C,H,-CN-OH

propionic anhydride

86

AZTECS— AZYMITES

Azoximes can also be produced from o-benzil dioxime by the
" Beckmann " change. Most of the azoximes are very volatile
substances, sublime readily, and are easily soluble in water,

alcohol and benzene.

For detailed descriptions, see F. Tiemann (Ber., 1885, 18,
p. 1059), O. Schulz (Ber., 1885, 18, pp. 1084, 2459), and G. Muller
(Ber.,i886, 19, p. 1492) ; also Annual Reports of the Chemical Society).

AZTECS (from the Nahuatl word azllan, " place of the
Heron," or " Heron " people), the native name of one of the
tribes that occupied the tableland of Mexico on the arrival of
the Spaniards in America. It has been very frequently employed
as equivalent to the collective national title of Nahuatlecas or
Mexicans. The Aztecs came, according to native tradition,
from a country to which they gave the name of Aztlan, usually
supposed to lie towards the north-west, but the satisfactory
localization of it is one of the greatest difficulties in Mexican
history. The date of the exodus from Aztlan is equally un-
determined, being fixed by various authorities in the nth and
by others in the iath century. One Mexican manuscript gives
a date equivalent to A.D. 1164. They gradually increased their
influence among other tribes, until, by union with the Toltecs,
who occupied the tableland before them, they extended their
empire to an area of from 18,000 to 20,000 square leagues.
The researches of Humboldt gave the first clear insight into the
early periods of their history. See MEXICO; NAHUATLAN STOCK.

AZUAGA, a town of western Spain, in the province of Badajoz,
on the Belmez-Fuente del Arco railway. Pop. (1900) 14,192.
Azuaga is the central market for the live-stock of the broad up-
land pastures watered by the Matachel, a left-hand tributary
of the Guadiana, and by the Bembezar, a right-hand tributary
of the Guadalquivir. Coarse woollen goods and pottery are
manufactured in the town.

AZUAY (sometimes written ASSUAY), a province of Ecuador,
bounded N. by the province of Canar, E. by Oriente, S. by Loja,
and W. by El Oro. It was formerly called Cuenca, and formed
part of the department of Azuay, which also included the province
of Loja. Azuay is an elevated mountainous district with a great
variety of climates and products; among the latter are silver,
quicksilver, wheat, Indian corn, barley, cattle, wool, cinchona
and straw hats. The capital is Cuenca.

AZUNI, DOMENICO ALBERTO (1740-1827), Italian jurist,
was born at Sassar, in Sardinia, in 1749. He studied law at
Sassari and Turin, and in 1782 was made judge of the consulate
at Nice. In 1786-1788 he published his Dizionario Universale
Ragionato detta Giurispntdenza Mercantile. In 1795 appeared
his systematic work on the maritime law of Europe, Sistema
Universale dei Principtt del Diritto Maritime dell' Europa, which
he afterwards recast and translated into French. In 1806 he
was appointed one of the French commission engaged in drawing
up a general code of commercial law, and in the following year
he proceeded to Genoa as president of the court of appeal. After
the fall of Napoleon in 1814, Azuni lived for a time in retirement
at Genoa, till he was invited to Sardinia by Victor Emmanuel I.,
and appointed judge of the consulate at Cagliari, and director
of the university library. He died at Cagliari in 1827. Azuni
also wrote numerous pamphlets and minor works, chiefly on
maritime law, an important treatise on the origin and progress
of maritime law (Paris, 1810), and an historical, geographical
and political account of Sardinia (1799, enlarged 1802).

AZURARA, GOMES EANNES DE (?-i474), the second
notable Portuguese chronicler in order of date. He adopted the
career of letters in middle life. He probably entered the royal
library as assistant to Fernao Lopes (q.v.) during the reign of
King Duarte (1433-1438), and he had sole charge of it in 1452.
His Chronicle of the Siege and Capture of Ceuta, a supplement to
the Chronicle of King John /., by Lopes, dates from 1450, and
three years later he completed the first draft of the Chronicle of
the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, our authority for the early
Portuguese voyages of discovery down the African coast and
in the ocean, more especially for those undertaken under the
auspices of Prince Henry the Navigator. It contains some
account of the life work of that prince, and has a biographical as
well as a geographical interest. On the 6th of June 1454 Azurara

became chief keeper of the archives and royal chronicler in
succession to Fernao Lopes. In 1456 King Alphonso V. com-
missioned him to write the history of Ceuta, " the land-gate of
the East," under the governorship of D. Pedro de Menezes, from
its capture in 1415 until 1437, and he had it ready in 1463. A
year afterwards the king charged him with a history of the deeds
of D. Duarte de Menezes, captain of Alcacer, and, proceeding to
Africa, he spent a twelvemonth in the town collecting materials
and studying the scenes of the events he was to describe, and in
1468 he completed the chronicle. Alphonso corresponded with
Azurara on terms of affectionate intimacy, and no less than three
commendas of the order of Christ rewarded his literary services.
He has little of the picturesque ingenuousness of Lopes, and
loved to display his erudition by quotations and philosophical
reflections, showing that he wrote under the influence of the first
Renaissance. Nearly all the leading classical, early Christian
and medieval writers figure in his pages, and he was acquainted
with the notable chronicles and romances of Europe and had
studied the best Italian and Spanish authors. In addition, he
had mastered the geographical system of the ancients and their
astrology. As an historian he is laborious, accurate and con-
scientious, though his position did not allow him to tell the
whole truth about his hero, Prince Henry.

His works include: (i) Chronica del Rei D. Joam 7. Terceira
parte em que se content a tomada de Ceuta (Lisbon, 1644) ; (2) Chronica
do Descobrimento e Conquista de Guine (Paris, 1841 ; Eng. version
in 2 vols. issued by the Hakluyt Society, London, 1896-1899);
(3) Chronica do Conde D. Pedro (de Menezes), printed in the Ineditos
de Historia Portugueza, vol. ii. (Lisbon, 1792) ; (4) Chronica do Conde
D. Duarte de Menezes, printed in the Ineditos, vol. iii. (Lisbon, 1793).
The preface to the English version of the Chronicle of Guinea contains
a full account of the life and writings of Azurara and cites all the
authorities. (E. PR.)

AZURE (derived, through the Romance languages, from the
Arabic al-lazward, for the precious stone lapis lazuli, the initial
I having dropped), the lapis lazuli; and so its colour, blue.

AZURITE, or CHESSYLITE, a mineral which is a basic copper
carbonate, 2CuCO3-Cu(OH)2. In its vivid blue colour it contrasts
strikingly with the emerald-green malachite, also a basic copper
carbonate, but containing rather more water and less carbon
dioxide. It was known to Pliny
under the name caeruleum, and
the modern name azurite (given
by F. S. Beudant in 1824) also
has reference to the azure-blue
colour; the name chessylite, also
in common use, is of later date
(1852), and is from the locality,
Chessy near Lyons, which has supplied the best crystallized
specimens of the mineral. Crystals of azurite belong to the
monoclinic system; they have a vitreous lustre and are trans-
lucent. The streak is blue, but lighter than the colour of the
mineral in mass. Hardness 35-4; sp. gr. 3-8.

Azurite occurs with malachite in the upper portions of deposits
of copper ore, and owes its origin to the alteration of the sulphide
or of native copper by water containing carbon dioxide and
oxygen. It is thus a common mineral in all copper mines, and
sometimes occurs in large masses, as in Arizona and in South
Australia, where it has been worked as an ore of copper, of
which element it contains 55%. Being less hydrated than
malachite it is itself liable to alteration into this mineral, and
pseudomorphs of malachite after azurite are not uncommon.
Occasionally the massive material is cut and polished for decora-
tive purposes, though the application in this direction is far less
extensive than that of malachite. (L. J. S.)

AZYMITES (Gr. &-, without; ffyw?, leaven), a name given
by the Orthodox Eastern to the Western or Latin Church,
because of the latter's use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist,
a practice which arose in the 9th century and is also observed
by Armenians and Maronites following the Jewish passover
custom. The Orthodox Church strenuously maintains its
point, arguing that the very name bread, the holiness of the
mystery, and the example of Jesus and the early church alike,
testify against the use of unleavened bread in this connexion.

B— BAADER

BThis letter corresponds to the second symbol in the
Phoenician alphabet, and appears in the same position
in all the European alphabets, except those derived, like
the Russian, from medieval Greek, in which the pronun-
ciation of this symbol had changed from b to v. A new form had
therefore to be invented for the genuine b in Slavonic, to which
there was, at the period when the alphabet was adopted, no cor-
responding sound in Greek. The new symbol , which occupies the
second position, was made by removing the upper loop of B,
thus producing a symbol somewhat resembling an ordinary lower-
case b. The old B retained the numerical value of the Greek /3
as 2, and no numerical value was given to the new symbol. In
the Phoenician alphabet the earliest forms are ^ ^ or more
rounded 9- The rounded form appears also in the earliest
Aramaic (see ALPHABET). Like some other alphabetic symbols
it was not borrowed by Greek in its original form. In the very
early rock inscriptions of Thera (700-600 B.C.), written from
right to left, it appears in a form resembling the ordinary Greek
X; this form apparently arose from writing the Semitic symbol
upside down. Its form in inscriptions of Melos, Selinus, Syracuse
and elsewhere in the 6th and sth centuries suggests the influence
of Aramaic forms in which the head of the letter is opened, */.
The Corinthian fTJ* LTI and TJ (also at Corcyra) and the f1 J1
of Byzantine coins are other adaptations of the same symbol.
The form C which it takes in the alphabets of Naxos, Delos and
other Ionic islands at the same period is difficult to explain.
Otherwise its only variation is between pointed and rounded
loops (& and B)- The sound which the symbol represents is
the voiced stop made by closing the lips and vibrating the vocal
chords (see PHONETICS). It differs from p by the presence of
vibration of the vocal chords and from m because the nasal
passage as well as the lips is closed. When an audible emission
of breath attends its production the aspirate bh is formed. This
sound was frequent in the pro-ethnic period of the Indo-European
languages and survived into the Indo-Aryan languages. Accord-
ing to the system of phonetic changes generally known as
" Grimm's law," an original b appears in English as p, an original
bh as b. An original medial p preceding the chief accent of the
word also appears as b in English and the other members of the
same group. It is not certain that any English word is descended
from an original word beginning with b, though it has been
suggested that peg is of the same origin as the Latin baculum
and the Greek Panrpov. When the lips are not tightly closed
the sound produced is not a stop" but a spirant like the English
w. In Late Latin there was a tendency to this spirant pro-
nunciation which appears as early as the beginning of the 2nd
century A.D.; by the 3rd century b and consonantal u are in-
extricably confused. When this consonantal « (English w as seen
in words borrowed very early from Latin like -wall and wine)
passed into the sound of English v (labio-dental) is not certain,
but Germanic words borrowed into Latin in the sth century A.D.
have in their Latin representation gu- for Germanic w-, guisa
corresponding to English wise and reborrowed indirectly as guise.
The earliest form of the name of the symbol which we can
reach is the Hebrew belh, to which the Phoenician must have
been closely akin, as is shown by the Greek PTJTCL, which is
borrowed from it with a vowel affixed. (P. Gi.)

BAADER, FRANZ XAVER VON (1765-1841), German
philosopher and theologian, born on the 27th of March 1765 at
Munich, was the third son of F. P. Baader, court physician to the
elector of Bavaria. His brothers were both distinguished — the
elder, Clemens, as an author; the second, Joseph (1763-1835), as
an engineer. Franz studied medicine at Ingolstadt and Vienna,
and for a short time assisted his father in his practice. This life
he soon found uncongenial, and decided on becoming a mining
engineer. He studied under Abraham Gottlob Werner at
Freiberg, travelled through several of the mining districts in
north Germany, and for four years, 1792-1796, resided in

England. There he became acquainted with the works of Jakob
Boehme, and with the ideas of Hume, Hartley and Godwin,
which were extremely distasteful to him. The mystical specula-
tions of Meister Eckhart, Saint Martin, and above all those of
Boehme, were more in harmony with his mode of thought. In
1796 he returned from England, and in Hamburg became
acquainted with F. H. Jacobi, with whom he was for years on
terms of friendship. He now learned something of Schelling, and
the works he published during this period were manifestly
influenced by that philosopher. Yet Baader is no disciple of
Schelling, and probably gave out more than he received. Their
friendship continued till about the year 1822, when Baader's
denunciation of modern philosophy in his letter to the emperor
Alexander I. of Russia entirely alienated Schelling.

All this time Baader continued to apply himself to his pro-
fession of engineer. He gained a prize of 12,000 gulden (about
£1000) for his new method of employing Glauber's salts instead
of potash in the making of glass. From 1817 to 1820 he held the
post of superintendent of mines, and was raised to the rank of
nobility for his services. He retired in 1820, and soon after
published one of the best of his works, Fermenta Cognitionis,
6 parts, 1822-1825, in which he combats modem philosophy
and recommends the study of Boehme. In 1826, when the new
university was opened at Munich, he was appointed professor
of philosophy and speculative theology. Some of the lectures
delivered there he published under the title, Spekulative Dogmatik,
4 parts, 1827-1836. In 1838 he opposed the interference in civil
matters of the Roman Catholic Church, to which he belonged,
and in consequence was, during the last three years of his life,
interdicted from lecturing on the philosophy of religion. He died
on the 23rd of May 1841.

It is difficult to summarize Baader's philosophy, for he himself
generally gave expression to his deepest thoughts in obscure
aphorisms, or mystical symbols and analogies (see Ed. Zeller's
Ges. d. deut. Phil. 732, 736). Further, he has no systematic works;
his doctrines exist for the most part in short detached essays, in
comments on the writings of Boehme and Saint Martin, or in his
extensive correspondence and journals. At the same time there
are salient points which mark the outline of his thought. Baader
starts from the position that human reason by itself can never reach
the end it aims at, and maintains that we cannot throw aside the
presuppositions of faith, church and tradition. His point of view
may be described as Scholasticism ; for, like the scholastic doctors,
he believes that theology and philosophy are not opposed sciences,
but that reason has to make clear the truths given by authority and
revelation. But in his attempt to draw still closer the realms of
faith and knowledge he approaches more nearly to the mysticism
of Eckhart, Paracelsus and Boehme. Our existence depends on the
fact that we are cognized by God (cogitor ergo cogito et sum). All
self-consciousness is at the same time God-consciousness ; our know-
ledge is never mere scientia, it js invariably con-scientia — a knowing
with , consciousness of, or participation in God. Baader's philosophy
is thus essentially a theosophy. God is not to be conceived as mere
abstract Being (substantia), but as everlasting process, activity
(actus). Of this process, this self-generation of God, we may dis-
tinguish two aspects — the immanent or esoteric, and the emanent
or exoteric. God has reality only in so far as He is absolute spirit,
and only in so far as the primitive will is conscious of itself can it
become spirit at all. But in this very cognition of self is involved the
distinction of knower and known, from which proceeds the power
to become spirit. This immanent process of self-consciousness,
wherein indeed a trinity of persons is not given but only rendered
possible, is mirrored in, and takes place through, the eternal and
impersonal idea or wisdom of God, which exists beside, though not
distinct from, the primitive will. Concrete reality or personality
is given to this divine Ternar, as Baader calls it, through nature, the
principle of self-hood, of individual being, which is eternally and
necessarilvproduced by God. Only in nature is the trinity of persons
attained. These processes, it must be noticed, are not to be conceived
as successive, or as taking place in time; they are to be looked at
sub specie aeternitatis, as the necessary elements or moments in the
self-evolution of the divine Being. Nor is nature to be confounded
with created substance, or with matter as it exists in space and time;
it is pure non-being, the mere otherness (oJteritas) of God — his shadow,
desire, want, or desiderium sui, as it is called by mystical writers.
Creation, itself a free and non-temporal act of God's love and will,
cannot be speculatively deduced, but must be accepted as an historic

BAAL

fact. Created beings were originally of three orders — the intelligent
or angels; the non-intelligent natural existences; and man, who
mediated between these two orders. Intelligent beings are endowed
with freedom; it is possible, but not necessary, that they should
fall. Hence the fact of the fall is not a speculative but an historic
truth. The angels fell through pride — through desire to raise them-
selves to equality with God; man fell by lowering himself to the
level of nature. Only after the fall of man begins the creation of
space, time and matter, or of the world as we now know it ; and the
motive of this creation was the desire to afford man an opportunity
for taking advantage of the scheme of redemption, for bringing forth
in purity the image of God according to which he has been fashioned.
The physical philosophy and anthropology which Baader, in con-
nexion with this, unfolds in various works, is but little instructive,
and coincides in the main with the utterances of Boehme. In nature
and in man he finds traces of the dire effects of sin, which has
corrupted both and has destroyed their natural harmony. As
regards ethics, Baader rejects the Kantian or any autonomic system
of morals. Not obedience to a moral law, but realization in ourselves
of the divine life is the true ethical end. But man has lost the power
to effect this by himself; he has alienated himself from God, and
therefore no ethical theory which neglects the facts of sin and re-
demption is satisfactory or even possible. The history of man and
of humanity is the history of the redeeming love of God. The means
whereby we put ourselves so in relation with Christ as to receive
from Him his healing virtue are chiefly prayer and the sacraments
of the church; mere works are never sufficient. Man in his social
relations is under two great institutions. One is temporal, natural
and limited — the state; the other is eternal, cosmopolitan and
universal — the church. In the state two things are requisite : first,
common submission to the ruler, which can be secured or given only
when the state is Christian, for God alone is the true ruler of men ;
and, secondly, inequality of rank, without which there can be no
organization. A despotism of mere power and liberalism, which
naturally produces socialism, are equally objectionable. The ideal
state is a civil community ruled by a universal or Catholic church,
the principles of which are equally distinct from mere passive pietism,
or faith which will know nothing, and from the Protestant doctrine,
which is the very radicalism of reason.

Baader is, without doubt, among the greatest speculative theo-
logians of modern Catholicism, and his influence has extended itself
even beyond the precincts of his own church. Among those whom
he influenced were R. Rothe, Julius Muller and Hans L. Markensen.

His works were collected and published by a number of his
adherents — F. Hoffman, J. Hamberger, E. v. Schaden, Lutterbeck,
von Osten-Sacken and Schluter — Baader's sammuiche Werke
(l6vols., 1851-1860). Valuable introductions by the editors are pre-
fixed to the several volumes. Vol. xv. contains a full biography;
vol. xvi. an index, and an able sketch of the whole system by
Lutterbeck. See F. Hoffmann, Vorhalle zur spekulativen Lehre
Baader's (1836); Grundzuge der Societdts-Philosophie Franz Baader's
(1837); Philosophische Schriften (3 vols., 1868-1872); Die Weltalter
(1868); Biographic und Briefwechsel (Leipzig, 1887); J. Hamberger,
Cardinalpunkte der Baaderschen PhUosophie (1855) ; Fundamental-
begriffe von F. B.'s Ethik, Politik, u. Religions-Philosophie (1858) ;
J. A. B. Lutterbeck, Philosophische Standpunkte Baaders (1854);
Baaders Lehre vom Weltgebiiude (1866). The most satisfactory
surveys are those given by Erdmann, Versuch einer Gesch. d. neuern
Phil. iii. 2, pp. 583-636; J. Claassen, Franz von Baaders Leben und
theosophische Werke (Stuttgart, 1886-1887), and Franz von Baaders
Gedanken uber Stoat und Gesellschaft (Gutersloh, 1890); Otto
Pfleiderer, Philosophy of Religion (vol. ii., Eng. trans. 1887) ; R.
Falckenberg, History of Philosophy, pp. 472-475 (trans. A. C. Arm-
strong, New York, 1893); Reichel, Die Sozietdtsphttosophie Franz
v. Baaders (Tubingen, 1901); Kuno Fischer, Zur hundertjdhrigen
Geburtstagfeier Baaders (Erlangen, 1865).

BAAL, a Semitic word, which primarily signifies lord, owner
or inhabitant,1 and then, in accordance with the Semitic way of
looking at family and religious relations, is specially appropriated
to express the relation of a husband to his wife and of the deity
to his worshipper. In the latter usage it indicated not that the
god was the lord of the worshipper, but rather the possessor of,
or ruler in, some place or district. In the Old Testament it is
regularly written with the article, i.e. " the Baal "; and the baals
of different tribes or sanctuaries were not necessarily conceived
as identical, so that we find frequent mention of Baalim, or
rather " the Baalim " in the plural. That the Israelites even
applied the title of Baal to Yahweh himself is proved by the
occurrence of such names as Jerubbaal (Gideon), Eshbaal (one
of Saul's sons) and Beeliada (a son of David, i Chron. xiv. 7).
The last name appears in 2 Sam. v. 16 as Eliada, showing that El

1 Cf. its use as a noun of relation, e.g. a ba'al of hair, " a hairy
man " (2 Kings i. 8), b. of wings, " a winged creature," and in the
plural, b. of arrows, " archers " (Gen. xlix. 23), b. of oath, " con-
spirators " (Neh. vi. 18).

(God) was regarded as equivalent to Baal; cf. also the name
Be'aliah, " Yahweh is baal or lord," which survives in i Chron.
xii. 5. However, when the name Baal was exclusively appropri-
ated to idolatrous worship (cf. Hos. ii. 16 seq.), abhorrence for
the unholy word was marked by writing bosheth (shameful
thing) for baal in compound proper names, and thus we get the
usual forms Ishbosheth, Mephibosheth.

The great difficulty which has been felt by investigators in
determining the character and attributes of the god Baal mainly
arises from the original appellative sense of the word, and
many obscure points become clear if we remember that when a
title becomes a proper name it may be appropriated by different
peoples to quite distinct deities. Baal being originally a title,
and not a proper name, the innumerable baals could be distin-
guished by the addition of the name of a place or of some special
attribute.2 Accordingly, the baals are not to be regarded
necessarily as local variations of one and the same god, like the
many Virgins or Madonnas of Catholic lands, but as distinct
numina. Each community could speak of its own baal, although
a collection of allied communities might share the same cult,
and naturally, since the attributes ascribed to the individual
baals were very similar, subsequent syncretism was facilitated.

The Baal, as the head of each worshipping group, is the source
of all the gifts of nature (cf. Hos. ii. 8 seq., Ezek. xvi. 19); as
the god of fertility all the produce of the soil is his, and his
adherents bring to him their tribute of first-fruits. He is the
patron of all growth and fertility, and, by the " uncontrolled
use of analogy characteristic of early thought," the Baal is the
god of the productive element in its widest sense. Originating
probably, in the observation of the fertilizing effect of rains
and streams upon the receptive and reproductive soil, baalism
becomes identical with the grossest nature-worship. Joined with
the baals there are naturally found corresponding female figures
known as Ashtaroth, embodiments of Ashtoreth (see ASTARTE;
ISHTAE). In accordance with primitive notions of analogy,3
which assume that it is possible to control or aid the powers of
nature by the practice of " sympathetic magic " (see MAGIC), the
cult of the baals and Ashtaroth was characterized by gross
sensuality and licentiousness. The fragmentary allusions to
the cult of Baal Peor (Num. xxv., Hos. ix. 10, Ps. cvi. 28 seq.)
exemplify the typical species of Dionysiac orgies that prevailed.4
On the summits of hills and mountains flourished the cult of the
givers of increase, and " under every green tree " was practised
the licentiousness which in primitive thought was held to secure
abundance of crops (see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2nd ed. vol. ii. pp.
204 sqq.). Human sacrifice (Jer. xix. 5), the burning of incense
(Jer. vii. 9), violent and ecstatic exercises, ceremonial acts of
bowing and kissing, the preparfng of sacred mystic cakes, appear
among the offences denounced by the Israelite prophets, and
show that the cult of Baal (and Astarte) included the character-
istic features of heathen worship which recur in various parts
of the Semitic world, although attached to other names.6

By an easy transition the local gods of the streams and springs
which fertilized the increase of the fields became identified with

2 Compounds with geographical terms (towns, mountains), e.g.
Baal of Tyre, of Lebanon, &c., are frequent; see G. B. Gray, Heb.
Proper Names, pp. 124-126. Baal-berith or El-berith of Shechem
(Judg. ix. 4, 46) is usually interpreted to be the Baal or God of the
covenant, but whether of covenants in general or of a particular
covenant concluded at Shechem is disputed. The BaXMnpuws (near
Beirut) apparently presided over dancing; another compound (in
Cyprus) seems to represent a Baal of healing. On the " Baal of
flies " see BEELZEBUB.

3 The general analogy shows itself further in the idea of the deity
as the husband (ba'al) of his worshippers or of the land in which they
dwell. The Astarte of Gabal (Byblus) was regularly known as the
ba'alath (fern, of baal), her real name not being pronounced (perhaps
out of reverence).

4 See further Clermont-Ganneau, Pal. Explor. Fund Quart. Stat.,
1901, pp. 239, 369 sqq.; Buchler, Rev. d'etudes juives, 1901,
pp. 125 seq.

6 The extent to which elements of heathen cult entered into
purer types of religion is illustrated in the worship of Yahweh.
The sacred cakes of Astarte and old holy wells associated with her
cult were later even transferred to the worship of the Virgin (Ency.
Bib. col. 3993; Rouvier, in Bull. Archeol., 1900, p. 170).

BAALBEK

89

the common source of all streams, and proceeding along this line
it was possible for the numerous baals to be regarded eventually
as mere forms of one absolute deity. Consequently, the Baal
could be identified with some supreme power of nature, e.g. the
heavens, the sun, the weather or some planet. The particular
line of development would vary in different places, but the change
from an association of the Baal with earthly objects to heavenly
is characteristic of a higher type of belief and appears to be
relatively later. The idea which has long prevailed that Baal
was properly a sky-god affords no explanation of the local
character of the many baals; on the other hand, on the theory
of a higher development where the gods become heavenly or
astral beings, the fact that ruder conceptions of nature were
still retained (often in the unofficial but more popular forms of
cult) is more intelligible.

A specific Baal of the heavens appears to have been known
among the Hittites in the time of Rameses II., and considerably
later, at the beginning of the 7th century, it was the title of one
of the gods of Phoenicia. In Babylonia, from a very early
period, Baal became a definite individual deity, and was identified
with the planet Jupiter. This development is a mark of superior
culture and may have been spread through Babylonian influence.
Both Baal and Astarte were venerated in Egypt at Thebes and
Memphis in the XlXth Dynasty, and the former, through the
influence of the Aramaeans who borrowed the Babylonian
spelling Bel, ultimately became known as the Greek Belos who
was identified with Zeus.

Of the worship of the Tyrian Baal, who is also called Melkart
(king of the city), and is often identified with the Greek Heracles,
but sometimes with the Olympian Zeus, we have many accounts
in ancient writers, from Herodotus downwards. He had a magni-
ficent temple in insular Tyre, founded by Hiram, to which gifts
streamed from all countries, especially at the great feasts. The
solar character pf this deity appears especially in the annual feast
of his awakening shortly after the winter solstice (Joseph. C. Apion.
i. 18). At Tyre, as among the Hebrews, Baal had his symbolical
pillars, one of gold and one of smaragdus, which, transported by
phantasy to the farthest west, are still familiar to us as the Pillars of
Hercules. The worship pf the Tyrian Baal was carried to all the
Phoenician colonies.1 His name occurs as an element in Cartha-
ginian proper names (Hannifra/, Hasdrubal, &c.), and a tablet found
at_Marseilles still survives to inform us of the charges made by the
priests of the temple of Baal for offering sacrifices.

The history of Baalism among the Hebrews is obscured by the
difficulty of determining whether the false worship which the
prophets stigmatize is the heathen worship of Yahweh under a
conception, and often with rites, which treated him as a local
nature god; or whether Baalism was consciously recognized
to be distinct from Yahwism from the first. Later religious
practice was undoubtedly opposed to that of earlier times, and
attempts were made to correct narratives containing views
which had come to be regarded as contrary to the true worship
of Yahweh. The Old Testament depicts the history of the people
as a series of acts of apostasy alternating with subsequent
penitence and return to Yahweh, and the question whether this
gives effect to actual conditions depends upon the precise
character of the elements of Yahweh worship brought by the
Israelites into Palestine. This is still under dispute. There is
strong evidence at all events that many of the conceptions are
contrary to historical fact, and the points of similarity between
native Canaanite cult and Israelite worship are so striking that
only the persistent traditions of Israel's origin and of the work of
Moses compel the conclusion that the germs of specific Yahweh
worship existed from his day. The earliest certain reaction
against Baalism is ascribed to the reign of Ahab, whose marriage
with Jezebel gave the impulse to the introduction of a particular
form of the cult. In honour of his wife's god, the king, following
the example of Solomon, erected a temple to the Tyrian Baal
(see above). This, however, did not prevent him from remaining
a follower of Yahweh, whose prophets he still consulted, and

1 The sanctuary of Heracles at Daphne near Antioch was properly
that of the Semitic Baal, and at Amathus Jupiter Hospes takes the
place of Heracles or Malika, in which the Tyrian Melkart is to be
recognized (W. R. Smith, Rel. Sem. 2nd ed. pp. 178, 376). See
further PHOENICIA.

whose protection he still cherished when he named his sons
Ahaziah and Jehoram (" Yah[weh] holds," " Y. is high ").
The antagonism of Elijah was not against Baalism in general,
but against the introduction of a rival deity. But by the time
of Hosea (ii. 16 seq.) a further advance was marked, and the use
of the term " Baal " was felt to be dangerous to true religion.
Thus there gradually grew up a tendency to avoid the term,
and in accordance with the idea of Ex. xxiii. 13, it was replaced
by the contemptuous bdsheih, " shame " (see above). However,
the books of Deuteronomy and Jeremiah (cf. also Zeph. i. 4)
afford complete testimony for the prevalence of Baalism as late
as the exile, but prove that the clearest distinction was then
drawn between the pure worship of Yahweh the god of Israel
and the inveterate and debased cults of the gods of the land.
(See further HEBREW RELIGION; PROPHET.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — W. Robertson Smith, Relig. Semites, 2nd ed. pp.
93-1 13 (against his theory of the introduction of Baal among the Arabs
see M. j.Xagrange, Etudes d. relig. sem. pp. 83-98). For the reading
" Baal ' in the Amarna tablets (Palestine, about 1400 B.C.) sec
Knudtzpn, Beitr. z. Assyriol. (1901), pp. 320 seq., 415; other cunei-
form evidence in E. Schrader's Keilinsch. «. Alte Test, yd ed. p. 357
(by H. Zimmern; see also his Index, sub voce). On Baal-Shamem
(B. of the heavens) M. Lidzbarski's monograph (Ephemeris, i. 243-
260, ii. 120) is invaluable, and this work, with his Handbuck d. nord-
semit. Epigraphik, contains full account of the epigraphical material.
See Baethgen, Beitr. z. semit. Religionsgesch. pp. 17-32; also the
articles on Baal by E. Meyer in Roscher's Lexikon, and G. F. Moore
in Ency. Bib. (On Beltane fires and other apparent points of con-
nexion with Baal it may suffice to refer to Aug. Pick, Vergleich.
Wotterbuch, who derives the element bel from an old Celtic root
meaning shining, &c.) (W. R. S. ; S, A. C.)

BAALBEK (anc. Heliopolis), a. townol theBuka'a (Coelesyria),
altitude 3850 ft., situated E. of the Litani and near the parting
between its waters and those of the Asi. Pop. about 5000,
including 2000 Metawali and 1000 Christians (Maronite and
Orthodox). Since 1902 Baalbek has been connected by railway
with Rayak (Rejak) on the Beirut-Damascus line, and since 1007
with Aleppo. It is famous for its temple ruins of the Roman
period, before which we have no record of it, certain though it be
that Heliopolis is a translation of an earlier native name, in which
Baal was an element. It has been suggested, but without good
reason, that this name was the Baalgad of Josh. xi. 17.

Heliopolis was made a colonia probably by Octavian (coins of
ist century A.D.), and there must have been a Baal temple there
in which Trajan consulted the oracle. The foundation of the
present buildings, however, dates from Antoninus Pius, and their
dedication from Septimius Severus, whose coins first show the
two temples. The great courts of approach were not finished
before the reigns of Caracalla and Philip. In commemoration, no
doubt, of the dedication of the new sanctuaries, Severus conferred
the jus Italicum on the city. The greater of the two temples was
sacred to Jupiter (Baal), identified with the Sun, with whom
were associated Venus and Mercury as ffvufju/jai 0«oi. The
lesser temple was built in honour of Bacchus (not the Sun, as
formerly believed). Jupiter-Baal was represented locally as a
beardless god in long scaly drapery, holding a whip in his right
hand and lightning and ears of corn in his left. Two bulls
supported him. In this guise he passed into European worship
in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. The extreme licence of the
Heliopolitan worship is often animadverted upon by early
Christian writers, and Constantino, making an effort to curb the
Venus cult, built a basilica. Theodosius erected another, with
western apse, in the main court of the Jupiter temple.

When Abu Ubaida (or Obaida) attacked the place after the
Moslem capture of Damascus (A.D. 635), it was still an opulent
city and yielded a rich booty. It became a bone of contention
between the various Syrian dynasties and the caliphs first of
Damascus, then of Egypt, and in 748 was sacked with great
slaughter. In 1090 it passed to the Seljuks, and in 1134 to
Jenghiz Khan; but after 1145 it remained attached to Damascus
and was captured by Saladin in 1175. The Crusaders raided its
valley more than once, but never took the city. Three times
shaken by earthquake in the 1 2th century, it was dismantled by
Hulagu in 1260. But it revived, and most of its fine Moslem
mosque and fortress architecture, still extant, belongs to the

9°

BAARN

reign of Sultan Kalaun (1282) and the succeeding century, during
which Abulfeda describes it as a very strong place. In 1400
Timur pillaged it, and in 1517 it passed, with the rest of Syria, to
the Ottoman dominion. But Ottoman jurisdiction was merely
nominal in the Lebanon district, and Baalbek was really in
the hands of the Metawali (see LEBANON), who retained it
against other Lebanon tribes, until " Jezzar " Pasha, the rebel
governor of the Acre province, broke their power in the last half
of the i8th century. The anarchy which succeeded his death in
1804 was only ended by the Egyptian occupation (1832). With
the treaty of London (1840) Baalbek became really Ottoman, and
since the settlement of the Lebanon (1864) has attracted great
numbers of tourists.

BAALBEK \ ^

Scale of Yard* \ *"

> »o ap 30 40 50 60 70 80 f>

••k Human Work

Efc tlimitita or farly Ctrtltlai Work '\
I lain Watii

After Puchslcin, with permission of Georg Reimer

Emery Walker sc.

The ruins were brought to European notice by Pierre Belon in
1555, though previously visited, in 1507, by Martin von Baum-
garten. Much damaged by the earthquake of 1759, they remained
a wilderness of fallen blocks till 1901, when their clearance was
undertaken by the German Archaeological Institute and entrusted
to the direction of Prof. O. Puchstein. They lie mainly on the
ancient Acropolis, which has been shored up with huge walls to
form a terrace raised on vaults and measuring about noo ft.
from E. to W. The Propylaea lie at the E. end, and were
approached by a flight of steps now quarried away. These
propylaea formed a covered hall, or vestibule, about 35 ft. deep,
flanked with towers richly decorated within and without (much
damaged by Arab reconstruction). Columns stood in front,
whose bases still exist and bear the names of Antoninus Pius and
Julia Domna. Hence, through a triple gateway in a richly
ornamented screen, access is gained to the first or Hexagonal
Court, which measures about 250 ft. from angle to angle. It is
now razed almost to foundation level; but it can be seen that it
was flanked with halls each having four columns in front. A

portal on the W., 50 ft. wide, flanked by lesser ones 10 ft. wide
(that on the N. is alone preserved), admitted to the Main Court,
in whose centre was the High Altar of Burnt Sacrifice. This
altar and a great tank on the N. were covered by the foundations
of Theodosius' basilica and not seen till the recent German
clearance. The Main Court measures about 440 ft. from E. to W.
and 370 ft. from N. to S., thus covering about 35 acres. It had a
continuous fringe of covered halls of various dimensions and
shapes, once richly adorned with statues and columnar screens.
Some of these halls are in fair preservation. Stairs on the W. led
up to the temple of Jupiter-Baal, now much ruined, having only
6 of the 54 columns of its peristyle erect. Three fell in the
earthquake of 1759. Those still standing are Nos. 1 1 to 16 in the
southern rank. Their bases and shafts are not finished, though
the capitals and rich entablature seem completely worked. They
have a height of 60 ft. and diameter of 75 ft., and are mostly
formed of three blocks. The architrave is threefold and bears a
frieze with lion-heads, on which rest a moulding and cornice.

The temple of Bacchus stood on a platform of its own formed
by a southern projection of the Acropolis. It was much smaller
than the Jupiter temple, but is better preserved.' The steps of
the E. approach were intact up to 1688. The temple was
peripteral with 46 columns in its peristyle. These were over
52 ft. in height and of the Corinthian order, and supported an
entablature 7 ft. high with double frieze, connected with the
cella walls by a coffered ceiling, which contained slabs with heads
of gods and emperors. Richard Burton, when consul-general at
Damascus in 1870, cleared an Arab screen out of the vestibule^
and in consequence the exquisite doorway leading into the cella
can now be well seen. On either side of it staircases constructed
within columns lead to the roof. The cracked door-lintel, which
shows an eagle on the soffit, was propped up first by Burton, and
lately, more securely, by the Germans. The cella, now ruinous,
had inner wall-reliefs and engaged columns, which supported
rich entablatures.

The vaults below the Great Court of the Jupiter Temple,
together with the supporting walls of the terrace, are noticeable.
In the W. wall of the latter occur the three famous megaliths,
which gave the name Trilithon to the Jupiter temple in Byzantine
times. These measure from 63 to 64 ft. in length and 13 ft. in
height and breadth, and have been raised 20 ft. above the ground.
They are the largest blocks known to have been used in actual
construction, but are excelled by another block still attached to
its bed in the quarries half a mile S. W. This is 68 ft. long by 14 ft.
high and weighs about 1500 tons. For long these blocks were
supposed, even by European visitors, to be relics of a primeval
race of giant builders.

In the town, below the Acropolis, on the S.E. is a small temple
of the late imperial age, consisting of a semicircular cella with a
peristyle of eight Corinthian columns, supporting a projecting
entablature. The cella is decorated without with a frieze, and
within with pillars and arcading. This temple owes its preserva-
tion to its use as a church of St Barbara, a local martyr, also
claimed by the Egyptian Heliopolis. Hence the building is
known as Barbarat al-atika. Considerable remains of the N.
gate of the city have also been exposed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — These vast ruins, more imposing from their
immensity than pleasing in detail, have been described by scores of
travellers and tourists; but it will be sufficient heie to refer to the
following works: — (First discoverers) M. von Baumgarten, Pere-
grinatio in . . . Syrian (1594); P. Belon, De admirabili operum
antiquorum praestantia (1553); and Observations, &c. (1555).
(Before earthquake of 1759) R. Wood, Ruins of Baalbec (1757).
(Before excavation) H. Frauberger, Die Akropolis von Baalbek
(1892). (After excavation) O. Puchstein, Fiihrer durch die Ruinen
v. Baalbek (1905), (with Th. v. Liipke) Ansichten, &c. (1905). See
also R. Phene Spiers, Quart. Slat. Pal. Exp. Fund, 1904, pp. 58-64,
and the Builder, n Feb. 1905. (D. G. H.)

BAARN, a small town in the province of Utrecht, Holland,
5 m. by rail E. of Hilversum, at the junction of a branch line to
Utrecht. Like Hilversum it is situated in the midst of pictur-
esque and wooded surroundings, and is a favourite summer re-
sort of people from Amsterdam. The Baarnsche Bosch, or wood,
stretches southward to Soestdyk, where there is a royal country-

BABADAG— BABENBERG

seat, originally acquired by the state in 1795. Louis Bonaparte,
king of Holland, who was very fond of the spot, formed a zoo-
logical collection here which was removed to Amsterdam in 1809.
In 1816 the estate was presented by the nation to the prince of
Orange (afterwards King William II.) in recognition of his
services at the battle of Quatre Bras. Since then the palace and
grounds have been considerably enlarged and beautified. Close
to Baarn in the south-west were formerly situated the ancient
castles of Drakenburg and Drakenstein, and at Vuursche there
is a remarkable dolmen.

BABADAG, or BABATAG, a town in the department of Tulcea,
Rumania; situated on a small lake formed by the river Taitza
among the densely wooded highlands of the northern Dobrudja.
Pop. (1900) about 3500. The Taitza lake is divided only by a
strip of marshland from Lake Razim, a broad landlocked sheet
of water which opens on the Black Sea. Babadag is a market
for the wool and mutton of the Dobrudja. It was founded by
Bayezid I., sultan of the Turks from 1389 to 1403. It occasion-
ally served as the winter headquarters of the Turks in their wars
with Russia, and was bombarded by the Russians in 1854.

BABBAGE, CHARLES (1792-1871), English mathematician
and mechanician, was born on the z6th of December 1792 at
Teignmouth in Devonshire. He was educated at a private school,
and afterwards entered St Peter's College, Cambridge, where he
graduated in 1814. Though he did not compete in the mathe-
matical tripos, he acquired a great reputation at the university.
In the years 1815-1817 he contributed three papers on the
" Calculus of Functions " to the Philosophical Transactions, and
in 1816 was made a fellow of the Royal Society. Along with
Sir John Herschel and George Peacock he laboured to raise the
standard of mathematical instruction in England, and especially
endeavoured to supersede the Newtonian by the Leibnitzian
notation in the infinitesimal calculus. Babbage's attention
seems to have been very early drawn to the number and im-
portance of the errors introduced into astronomical and other
calculations through inaccuracies in the computation of tables.
He contributed to the Royal Society some notices on the relation
between notation and mechanism; and in 1822, in a letter to
Sir H. Davy on the application of machinery to the calculation
and printing of mathematical tables, he discussed the principles
of a calculating engine, to the construction of which he devoted
many years of his life. Government was induced to grant its
aid, and the inventor himself spent a portion of his private fortune
in the prosecution of his undertaking. He travelled through
several of the countries of Europe, examining different systems
of machinery; and some of the results of his investigations were
published in the admirable little work, Economy of Machines
and Manufactures (1834). The great calculating engine was
never completed; the constructor apparently desired to adopt
a new principle when the first specimen was nearly complete,
to make it not a difference but an analytical engine, and the
government declined to accept the further risk (see CALCULATING
MACHINES). From 1828 to 1839 Babbage was Lucasian professor
of mathematics at Cambridge. He contributed largely to several
scientific periodicals, and was instrumental in founding the
Astronomical (1820) and Statistical (1834) Societies. He only
once endeavoured to enter public life, when, in 1832, he stood
unsuccessfully for the borough of Finsbury. During the later
years of his life he resided in London, devoting himself to the
construction of machines capable of performing arithmetical
and even algebraical calculations. He died at London on the
i8th of October 1871. He gives a few biographical details in
his Passages from the Life of a Philosopher (1864), a work which
throws considerable light upon his somewhat peculiar character.
His works, pamphlets and papers were very numerous; in the
Passages he enumerates eighty separate writings. Of these the
most important, besides the few already mentioned, are Tables of
Logarithms (1826); Comparative View of the Various Institutions
for the Assurance of Lives (1826); Decline of Science in England
(1830); Ninth Bridgewater Treatise (1837); The Exposition of
1851 (1851).
See Monthly Notices, Royal Astronomical Society, vol. 32.

BABEL, the native name of the city called Babylon (q.v.) by the
Greeks, the modern Hillah. It means "gate of the god," not"gate
of the gods," corresponding to the Assyrian Bab-ili. According
to Gen. xi. 1-9 (J), mankind, after the deluge, travelled from the
mountain of the East, where the ark had rested, and settled in
Shinar. Here they attempted to build a city and a tower whose
top might reach unto heaven, but were miraculously prevented
by their language being confounded. In this way the diversity
of human speech and the dispersion of mankind were accounted
for; and in Gen. xi. 9 (J) an etymology was found for the name
of Babylon in the Hebrew verb bdlal, " to confuse or confound,"
Babel being regarded as a contraction of Balbel. In Gen. x. 10 it
is said to have formed part of the kingdom of Nimrod.

The origin of the story has not been found in Babylonia. The
tower was no doubt suggested by one of the temple towers of
Babylon. W. A. Bennet (Genesis, p. 169; cf. Hommel in Hastings'
Dictionary of the Bible) suggests E-Saggila, the great temple
of Merodach (Marduk). The variety of languages and the dis-
persion of mankind were regarded as a curse, and it is probable
that, as Prof. Cheyne (Encyclopaedia Biblica, col. 411) says, there
was an ancient North Semitic myth to explain it. The event
was afterwards localized in Babylon. The myth, as it appears
in Genesis, is quite polytheistic and anthropomorphic. According
to Cornelius Alexander (frag. 10) and Abydenus (frags. 5 and 6)
the tower was overthrown by the winds; according to Yaqut
(i. 448 f.) and the Lisan el-' Arab (xiii. 72) mankind were swept
together by winds into the plain afterwards called " Babil,"
and were scattered again in the same way (see further D. B.
Macdonald in the Jewish Encyclopaedia). A tradition similar
to that of the tower of Babel is found in Central America. Xelhua,
one of the seven giants rescued from the deluge, built the great
pyramid of Cholula in order to storm heaven. The gods, how-
ever, destroyed it with fire and confounded the language of the
builders. Traces of a somewhat similar story have also been
met with among the Mongolian Tharus in northern India
(Report of the Census of Bengal, 1872, p. 160), and, according
to Dr Livingstone, among the Africans of Lake Ngami. The
Esthonian myth of " the Cooking of Languages " (Kohl, Reisen
in die Ostseeprovinzen, ii. 251-255) may also be compared, as
well as the Australian legend of the origin of the diversity of
speech (Gerstacker, Reisen, vol. iv. pp. 381 seq.).

BAB-EL-M ANDES (Arab, for " The Gate of Tears ") , the strait
between Arabia and Africa which connects the Red Sea (q.v.)
with the Indian Ocean. It derives its name from the dangers
attending its navigation, or, according to an Arabic legend,
from the numbers who were drowned by the earthquake which
separated Asia and Africa. The distance across is about 20 m.
from Ras Menheli on the Arabian coast to Ras Siyan on the
African. The island of Perim (q.v.), a British possession, divides
the strait into two channels, of which the eastern, known as the
Bab Iskender (Alexander's Strait), is 2 m. wide and 16 fathoms
deep, while the western, or Dact-el-Mayun, has a width of about
1 6 m. and a depth of 170 fathoms. Near the African coast lies
a group of smaller islands known as the " Seven Brothers."
There is a surface current inwards in the eastern channel, but a
strong under-current outwards in the western channel.

BABENBERG, the name of a Franconian family which held
the duchy of Austria before the rise of the house of Habsburg.
Its earliest known ancestor was one Poppo, who early in the
9th century was count in Grapfeld. One of his sons, Henry,
called margrave and duke in Franconia, fell fighting against the
Normans in 886; another, Poppo, was margrave in Thuringia
from 880 to 892, when he was deposed by the German king Arnulf.
The family had been favoured by the emperor Charles the Fat,
but Arnulf reversed this policy in favour of the rival family of
the Conradines. The leaders of the Babenbergs were the three
sons of Duke Henry, who called themselves after their castle of
Babenberg on the upper Main, round which their possessions
centred. The rivalry between the two families was intensified
by their efforts to extend their authority in the region of the
middle Main, and this quarrel, known as the " Babenberg feud,"
came to a head at the beginning of the loth century during the

BABER

troubled reign of the German king, Louis the Child. Two of
the Babenberg brothers were killed, and the survivor Adalbert
was summoned before the imperial court by the regent Hatto I.,
archbishop of Mainz, a partisan of the Conradines. He refused
to appear, held his own for a time in his castle atj Theres
against the king's forces, but surrendered in 906, and in spite of
a promise of safe-conduct was beheaded. From this time the
Babenbergs lost their influence in Franconia; but in 976 Leopold,
a member of the family who was a count in the Donnegau, is
described as margrave of the East Mark, a district not more
than 60 m. in breadth on the eastern frontier of Bavaria which
grew into the duchy of Austria. Leopold, who probably received
the mark as a reward for his fidelity to the emperor Otto II.
during the Bavarian rising in 976, extended its area at the expense
of the Hungarians, and was succeeded in 994 by his son
Henry I. Henry, who continued his father's policy, was followed
in 1018 by his brother Adalbert and in 1055 by his nephew
Ernest, whose marked loyalty to the emperors Henry III. and
Henry IV. was rewarded by many tokens of favour. The
succeeding margrave, Leopold II., quarrelled with Henry IV.,
who was unable to oust him from the mark or to prevent the
succession of his son Leopold III. in 1096. Leopold supported
Henry, son of Henry IV., in his rising against his father, but was
soon drawn over to the emperor's side, and in 1 106 married his
daughter Agnes, widow of Frederick I., duke of Swabia. He
declined the imperial crown in 1125. His zeal in founding
monasteries earned for him his surname " the Pious," and
canonization by Pope Innocent VIII. in 1485. He is regarded
as the patron saint of Austria. One of Leopold's sons was Otto,
bishop of Freising (q.v.). His eldest son, Leopold IV., became
margrave in 1136, and in 1139 received from the German king
Conrad III. the duchy of Bavaria, which had been forfeited by
Duke Henry the Proud. Leopold's brother Henry (surnamed
Jasomirgott from his favourite oath, " So help me God!") was
made count palatine of the Rhine in 1 140, and became margrave
of Austria on Leopold's death in 1 141. Having married Gertrude,
the widow of Henry the Proud, he was invested in 1 143 with the
duchy of Bavaria, and resigned his office as count palatine. In
1147 he went on crusade, and after his return renounced Bavaria
at the instance of the new king Frederick I. As compensation
for this, Austria, the capital of which had been transferred to
Vienna in 1 146, was erected into a duchy. The second duke was
Henry's son Leopold I., who succeeded him in 1177 and took
part in the crusades of 1 182 and 1 190. In Palestine he quarrelled
with Richard I., king of England, captured him on his home-
ward journey and handed him over to the emperor Henry VI.
Leopold increased the territories of the Babenbergs by acquiring
Styria in 1192 under the will of his kinsman Duke Ottakar IV.
He died in 1194, and Austria fell to one son, Frederick, and
Styria to another, Leopold; but on Frederick's death in 1198
they were again united by Duke Leopold II., surnamed " the
Glorious." The new duke fought against the infidel in Spain,
Egypt and Palestine, but is more celebrated as a lawgiver, a
patron of letters and a founder of towns. Under him Vienna
became the centre of culture in Germany and the great school
of Minnesingers (<?.».). His later years were spent in strife
with his son Frederick, and he died in 1230 at San Germane,
whither he had gone to arrange the peace between the emperor
Frederick II. and Pope Gregory IX. His son Frederick II.
followed as duke, and earned the name of " Quarrelsome " by
constant struggles with the kings of Hungary and Bohemia
and with the emperor. He deprived lu's mother and sisters
of their possessions, was hated by his subjects on account of his
oppressions, and in 1 236 was placed under the imperial ban and
driven from Austria. Restored when the emperor was excom-
municated, he treated in vain with Frederick for the erection of
Austria into a kingdom. He was killed in battle in 1 246, when
the male line of the Babenbergs became extinct. The city of
Bamberg grew up around the ancestral castle of the family.

See G. Juritsch, Geschichte der Babenberger und ihrer Lander
(Innsbruck, 1894); M. Schmitz, Oesterreichs Scheyern-Wittelsbacher
eder die Dynaslie der Babenberger (Munich, 1880).

BABER, or BABAR (1483-1330), a famous conqueror of India
and founder of the so-called Mogul dynasty. His name was
Zahir ud-din-Mahomet, and he was given the surname of Baber,
meaning the tiger. Born on the I4th of February 1483, he was
a descendant of Timur, and his father, Omar Sheik, was king of
Ferghana, a district of what is now Russian Turkestan. Omar
died in 1495, and Baber, though only twelve years of age,
succeeded to the throne. An attempt made by his uncles to
dislodge him proved unsuccessful, and no sooner was the young
sovereign firmly settled than he began to meditate an extension
of his own dominions. In 1497 he attacked and gained possession
of Samarkand, to which he always seems to have thought he
had a natural and hereditary right. A rebellion among his
nobles robbed him of his native kingdom, and while marching
to recover it his troops deserted him, and he lost Samarkand
also. After some reverses he regained both these places, but in
1501 his most formidable enemy, Shaibani (Sheibani) Khan,
ruler of the Uzbegs, defeated him in a great engagement and
drove him from Samarkand. For three years he wandered about
trying in vain to recover his lost possessions; at last, in 1504,
he gathered some troops, and crossing the snowy Hindu Kush
besieged and captured the strong city of Kabul. By this
dexterous stroke he gained a new and wealthy kingdom, and
completely re-established his fortunes. In the following year
he united with Hussain Mirza of Herat against Shaibani. The
death of Hussain put a stop to this expedition, but Baber spent
a year at Herat, enjoying the pleasures of that capital. He
returned to Kabul in time to quell a formidable rebellion, but
two years later a revolt among some of the leading Moguls
drove him from his city. He was compelled to take to flight
with very few companions, but his great personal courage and
daring struck the army of his opponents with such dismay that
they again returned to their allegiance and Baber regained his
kingdom. Once again, in 1510, after the death of Shaibani, he
endeavoured to obtain possession of his native country. He
received considerable aid from Shah Ismael of Persia, and in
1511 made a triumphal entry into Samarkand. But in 1514 he
was utterly defeated by the Uzbegs and with difficulty reached
Kabul. He seems now to have resigned all hopes of recovering
Ferghana, and as he at the same time dreaded an invasion of
the Uzbegs from the west, his attention was more and more
drawn towards India. Several preliminary incursions had been
already made, when in 1521 an opportunity presented itself for
a more extended expedition. Ibrahim, emperor of Delhi, had
made himself detested, even by his Afghan nobles, several of
whom called upon Baber for assistance. He at once assembled
his forces, 12,000 strong, with some pieces of artillery and
marched into India. Ibrahim, with 100,000 soldiers and numer-
ous elephants, advanced against him. The great battle was
fought at Panipat on the 2ist of April 1526, when Ibrahim
was slain and his army routed. Baber at once took possession
of Agra. A still more formidable enemy awaited him; the
Rana Sanga of Mewar collected the enormous force of 210,000
men, with which he moved against the invaders. On all sides
there was danger and revolt, even Baber's own soldiers, worn
out with the heat of this new ch'mate, longed for Kabul. By
vigorous measures and inspiriting speeches he restored their
courage, though his own heart was nearly failing him, and in his
distress he abjured the use of wine, to which he had been addicted.
At Kanwaha, on the loth of March 1527, he won a great victory
and made himself absolute master of northern India. The
remaining years of his life he spent in arranging the affairs and
revenues of his new empire and in improving his capital, Agra.
He died on the 26th of December 1530 in his forty-eighth year.
Baber was above the middle height, of great strength and an ad-
mirable archer and swordsman. His mind was as well cultivated
as his bodily powers; he wrote well, and his observations are
generally acute and accurate; he was brave, kindly and generous.

Full materials for his life are found in his Memoirs, written by
himself (translated into English by Leyden and Erskine (London,
1826); abridged in Caldecott, Life of Baber (London, 1844). Sec
also Lane-Poole, Baber (Rulers of India Series), 1899.

BABEUF

93

BABEUF, FRANCOIS NOEL (1760-1797), known as GRACCHUS
BABEUF, French political agitator and journalist, was born at
Saint Quentin on the 23rd of November 1 760. His father, Claude
Babeuf, had deserted the French army in 1738 and taken service
under Maria Theresa, rising, it is said, to the rank of major.
Amnestied in 1755 he returned to France, but soon sank into
dire poverty, being forced to earn a pittance for his wife and
family as a day labourer. The hardships endured by Babeuf
during early years do much to explain his later opinions. He
had received from his father the smatterings of a liberal education,
but until the outbreak of the Revolution he was a domestic
servant, and from 1785 occupied the invidious office of com-
missaire a terrier, his function being to assist the nobles and
priests in the assertion of their feudal rights as against the
unfortunate peasants. On the eve of the Revolution Babeuf
was in the employ of a land surveyor at Roye. His father had
died in 1780, and he was now the sole support, not only of his
wife and two children, but of his mother, brothers and sisters.
In the circumstances it is not surprising that he was the life and
soul of the malcontents of the place. He was an indefatigable
writer, and the first germ of his future socialism is contained in
a letter of the zist of March 1787, one of a series — mainly on
literature — addressed to the secretary of the Academy of Arras.
In 1789 he drew up the first article of the cahier of the electors
of the battliage of Roye, demanding the abolition of feudal
rights. Then, from July to October, he was in Paris super-
intending the publication of his first work: Cadastre perpetuel,
dfdii a I'assemblee nalionale, ran 1789 el le premier de la liberte
franc_aise, which was written in 1787 and issued in 1790. The
same year he published a pamphlet against feudal aids and the
gabelle, for which he was denounced and arrested, but provision-
ally released. In October, on his return to Roye, he founded
the Correspondant picard, the violent character of which cost him
another arrest. In November he was elected a member of the
municipality of Roye, but was expelled. In March 1791 he was
appointed commissioner to report on the national property
(biens nationaux) in the town, and in September 1792 was elected
a member of the council-general of the department of the Somme.
Here, as everywhere, the violence of his attitude made his
position intolerable to himself and others, and he was soon
transferred to the post of administrator of the district of
Montdidier. Here he was accused of fraud for having sub-
stituted one name for another in a deed of transfer of national
lands. It is probable that his fault was one of negligence only;
but, distrusting the impartiality of the judges of the Somme,
he fled to Paris, and on the 23rd of August 1793 was condemned
in contumaciam to twenty years' imprisonment. Meanwhile
he had been appointed secretary to the relief committee (comite
des subsistances) of the commune of Paris. The judges of Amiens,
however, pursued him with a warrant for his arrest, which
took place in Brumaire of the year II. (1794). The court of
cassation quashed the sentence, through defect of form, but
sent Babeuf for a new trial before the Aisne tribunal, by which
he was acquitted on the i8th of July.

Babeuf now returned to Paris, and on the 3rd of September
1 794 published the first number of his Journal de la liberte de la
presse, the title of which was altered on the sth of October to
Le Tribun du peuple. The execution of Robespierre on the 28th
of July had ended the Terror, and Babeuf — now self-styled
" Gracchus " Babeuf — defended the men of Thermidor and
attacked the fallen terrorists with his usual violence. But he
also attacked, from the point of view of his own socialistic
theories, the economic outcome of the Revolution. This was
an attitude which had few supporters, even in the Jacobin club,
and in October Babeuf was arrested and sent to prison at Arras.
Here he came under the influence of certain terrorist prisoners,
notably of Lebois, editor of the Journal de I'egalite, afterwards
of the A mi du peuple, papers which carried on the traditions of
Marat. He emerged from prison a confirmed terrorist and con-
vinced that his Utopia, fully proclaimed to the world in No. 33 of
his Tribun, could only be realized through the restoration of the
constitution of 1793. He was now in open conflict with the

whole trend of public opinion. In February 1795 he was again
arrested, and the Tribun du peuple was solemnly burnt in
the Theatre des Berge'res by the jeunesse dorte, the young
men whose mission it was to bludgeon Jacobinism out of the
streets and caf6s. But for the appalling economic conditions
produced by the fall in the value of assignats, Babeuf might
have shared the fate of other agitators who were whipped into
obscurity.

It was the attempts of the Directory to deal with this economic
crisis that gave Babeuf his real historic importance. The new
government was pledged to abolish the vicious system by which
Paris was fed at the expense of all France, and the cessation of
the distribution of bread and meat at nominal prices was fixed
for the 2oth of February 1796. The announcement caused the
most wide-spread consternation. Not only the workmen and
the large class of idlers attracted to Paris by the system, but
rentiers and government officials, whose incomes were paid in
assignats on a scale arbitrarily fixed by the government, saw
themselves threatened with actual starvation. The government
yielded to the outcry that arose; but the expedients by which
it sought to mitigate the evil, notably the division of those
entitled to relief into classes, only increased the alarm and the
discontent. The universal misery gave point to the virulent
attacks of Babeuf on the existing order, and at last gained
him a hearing. He gathered round him a small circle of his im-
mediate followers known as the Societe des £gaux, soon merged
with the rump of the Jacobins, who met at the Pantheon;
and in November 1795 he was reported by the police to be
openly preaching " insurrection, revolt and the constitution
of I793-"

For a time the government, while keeping itself informed of his
activities, left him alone; for it suited the Directory to let the
socialist agitation continue, in order to frighten the people from
joining in any royalist movement for the overthrow of the
existing regime. Moreover the mass of the ouvriers, even of
extreme views, were repelled by Babeuf 's bloodthirstiness;
and the police agents reported that his agitation was making
many converts — for the government. The Jacobin club of the
Faubourg Saint- Antoine refused to admit Babeuf and Lebois, on
the ground that they were " egorgeurs." With the development
of the economic crisis, however, Babeuf's influence increased.
After the club of the Pantheon was closed by Bonaparte, on the
27th of February 1796, his aggressive activity redoubled. In
Vent6se and Germinal he published, under the nom de plume of
" Lalande, soldat de la patrie," a new paper, the £.claireur du
peuple, ou le defenseur de vingt-cinq millions d'opprimts, which
was hawked clandestinely from group to group in the streets of
Paris. At the same time No. 40 of the Tribun excited an immense
sensation. In this he praised the authors of the September
massacres as " deserving well of their country," and declared
that a more complete " September 2nd " was needed to annihilate
the actual government, which consisted of " starvers, blood-
suckers, tyrants, hangmen, rogues and mountebanks." The
distress among all classes continued to be appalling; and in
March the attempt of the Directory to replace the assignats
(q.v.) by a new issue of mandats created fresh dissatisfaction
after the breakdown of the hopes first raised. A cry went up
that national bankruptcy had been declared, and thousands of the
lower class of ouvrier began to rally to Babeuf's flag. On the 4th
of April it was reported to the government that 500,000 people
in Paris were in need of relief. From the nth Paris was pla-
carded with posters headed A nalyse de la doctrine de Babteuf (sic) ,
tribun du peuple, of which the opening sentence ran: " Nature
has given to every man the right to the enjoyment of an equal
share in all property," and which ended with a call to restore
the constitution of 1 793. Babeuf's song Mourant defaim, mouranl
de froid (Dying of hunger, dying of cold), set to a popular air,
began to be sung in the cafes, with immense applause; and
reports were current that the disaffected troops in the camp of
Crenelle were ready to join an tmeute against the government.
The Directory thought it time to act; the bureau central had
accumulated through its agents, notably the ex-captain Georges

94

BABIISM

Grisel, who had been initiated into Babeuf's society, complete
evidence of a conspiracy for an armed rising fixed for Flo real 22,
year IV. (nth of May 1796), in which Jacobins and socialists
were combined. On the loth of May Babeuf was arrested
with many of his associates, among whom were A. Darthfi and
P. M. Buonarroti, the ex-members of the Convention, Robert
Lindet, J. A. B. Amar, M. G. A. Vadier and Jean Baptiste
Drouet, famous as the postmaster of Saint-Menehould who
had arrested Louis XVI., and now a member of the Council
of Five Hundred.

The coup was perfectly successful. The last number of the
Tribun appeared on the 24th of April, but Lebois in the Ami du
peuple tried to incite the soldiers to revolt, and for a while there
were rumours of a military rising. The trial of Babeuf and his
accomplices was fixed to take place before the newly constituted
high court of justice at Vendome. On Fructidor 10 and n (27th
and 28th of August), when the prisoners were removed from
Paris, there were tentative efforts at a riot with a view to rescue,
but these were easily suppressed. The attempt of five or six
hundred Jacobins (7th of September) to rouse the soldiers at
Crenelle met with no better success. The trial of Babeuf and
the others, begun at Vend6me on the 2oth of February 1797,
lasted two months. The government for reasons of their own
made the socialist Babeuf the leader of the conspiracy, though
more important people than he were implicated; and his own
vanity played admirably into their hands. On Prairial 7 (26th
of April 1797) Babeuf and Darthe were condemned to death;
some of the prisoners, including Buonarroti, were exiled; the
rest, including Vadier and his fellow-conventionals, were
acquitted. Drouet had succeeded in making his escape, according
to Barras, with the connivance of the Directory. Babeuf and
Darthe were executed at Vend6me on Prairial 8 (1797).

Babeuf's character has perhaps been sufficiently indicated
above. He was a type of the French revolutionists, excitable,
warm-hearted, half-educated, who lost their mental and moral
balance in the chaos of the revolutionary period. Historically,
his importance lies in the fact that he was the first to propound
socialism as a practical policy, and the father of the movements
which played so conspicuous a part in the revolutions of 1848
and 1871.

See V. Advielle. Hist, de Gracchus Babeuf et de Babouvisme (2 vols.,
Paris, 1884); P. M. Buonarroti, Conspiration pour I'egalitc, dite
de Babeuf (2 vols., Brussels, 1828; later editions, 1850 and 1869),
English translation by Bronterre O'Brien (London, 1836) ; Cam-
bridge Modern History, voj. viii. ; Adolf Schmidt, Pariser Zustdnde
wdhrend der Revolutionszeit von 1780-1800 (Jena, 1874). French
trans, by P. Viollet, Paris pendant la Revolution d'apres les rapports
de la police secrete, 1780-2800 (4 vols., 1880-^1894); A. Schmidt,
Tableaux de la Revolution franfaise, &c. (Leipzig, 1867-1870), a
collection of reports of the secret police on which the above work
is based. A full report of the trial at Vend6me was published in
four volumes at Paris in 1797, Debats du proces, &c. (W. A. P.)

BABIISM, the religion founded in Persia in A.D. 1844-1845
by Mirza 'All Muhammad of SMraz, a young Sayyid who was
at that time not twenty-five years of age. Before his "manifesta-
tion " (zuhur), of which he gives in the Persian Bayan a date
corresponding to 23rd May 1844, he was a disciple of Sayyid
Kazim of Rasht, the leader of the Shaykhis, a sect of extreme
Shi'ites characterized by the doctrine (called by them Rukn-i-
rdbi', " the fourth support ") that at all times there must exist
an intermediary between the twelfth Imam and his faithful
followers. This intermediary they called " the perfect Shf'ite,"
and his prototype is to be found in the four successive Babs or
" gates " through whom alone the twelfth Imam, during the
period of his " minor occultation " (Ghaybat-4-sughra, A.D. 874-
940), held communication with his partisans. 'It was in this
sense, and not, as has been often asserted, in the sense of " Gate of
God " or " Gate of Religion," that the title Bab was understood
and assumed by Mirza1 Ah" Muhammad ; but,though still generally
thus styled by non-Babfs, he soon assumed the higher title of Nuqta
(" Point "), and the title Bab, thus left vacant, was conferred on
his ardent disciple, Mulla Husayn of Bushrawayh.

The history of the Babis, though covering a comparatively
short period, is so full of incident and the particulars now available

are so numerous, that the following account purports to be only
the briefest sketch. The Bib himself was in captivity first at
Shiraz, then at Maku, and lastly at Chihriq, during the greater
part of the six years (May 1844 until July 1850) of his brief
career, but an active propaganda was carried on by his disciples,
which resulted in several serious revolts against the government,
especially aiter the death of Muhammad Shah in September 1848.
Of these risings the first (December i848-July 1849) took place
in Mazandaran, at the ruined shrine of Shaykh Tabarsi, near
Barfurush, where the Babis, led by Mulla Muhammad 'All of
Barfurush and Mulla Husayn of Bushrawayh (" the first who
believed "), defied the shah's troops for seven months before
they were finally subdued and put to death. The revolt at
Zanjan in the north-west of Persia, headed by Mulla Muhammad
'Ali Zanjani, also lasted seven or eight months (May-December
1850), while a serious, but less protracted struggle was waged
against the government at Niriz in Fars by Aga Sayyid Yahya
of Niriz. Both revolts were in progress when the Bab, with one
of his devoted disciples, was brought from his prison at Chihriq to
Tabriz and publicly shot in front of the arg or citadel. The
body, after being exposed for some days, was recovered by the
Babis and conveyed to a shrine near Tehran, whence it was
ultimately removed to Acre in Syria, where it is now buried.
For the next two years comparatively little was heard of the
Babis, but on the I5th of August 1852 three of them, acting on
their own initiative, attempted to assassinate Nasiru'd-Din Shah
as he was returning from the chase to his palace at Niyavaran.
The attempt failed, but was the cause of a fresh persecution,
and on the 3ist of August 1852 some thirty Babis, including
the beautiful and talented poetess Qurratu'l-'Ayn, were put to
death in Tehran with atrocious cruelty. Another of the victims
of that day was Hajji Mirza Jani of Kashan, the author of the
oldest history of the movement from the Babi point of view.
Only one complete MS. of his invaluable work (obtained by
Count Gobineau in Persia) exists in any public library, the
Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. The so-called " New History "
(of which an English translation was pubh'shed at Cambridge
in 1893 by E. G. Browne) is based on Mirza Jani's work, but
many important passages which did not accord with later Babi
doctrine or policy have been suppressed or modified, while some
additions have been made. The Bab was succeeded on his
death by Mirza Yahya of Nur (at that time only about twenty
years of age), who escaped to Bagdad, and, under the title of
Subft-i-Ezel (" the Morning of Eternity "), became the pontiff of
the sect. He lived, however, in great seclusion, leaving the direc-
tion of affairs almost entirely in the hands of his elder half-
brother (born i2th November 1817), Mirza Husayn 'Ali, entitled
Bahd'u'lldh ("the Splendour of God"), who thus gradually
became the most conspicuous and most influential member of
the sect, though in the Iqdn, one of the most important polemical
works of the Babis, composed in 1858-1859, he still implicitly
recognized the supremacy of Subh-i-Ezel. In 1863, however,
Baha declared himself to be " He whom God shall manifest "
(Man Yuz-hiruhu'llah, with prophecies of whose advent the
works of the Bab are filled), and called on all the Babis to recog-
nize his claim. The majority responded, but Subh-i-Ezel and
some of his faithful adherents refused. After that date the
Babis divided into two sects, Ezelfs and Baha'fs, of which the
former steadily lost and the latter gained ground, so that in 1008
there were probably from half a million to a million of the latter,
and at most only a hundred or two of the former. In 1863 the
Babis were, at the instance of the Persian government, removed
from Bagdad to Constantinople, whence they were shortly
afterwards transferred to Adrianople. In 1868 Italia and his
followers were exiled to Acre in Syria, and Subh-i-Ezel with his
few adherents to Famagusta in Cyprus, where he was still living
in 1908. Bahi'u'llah died at Acre on the i6th of May 1892.
His son 'Abbas Efendf (also called 'Abdu'1-Baha, " the servant
of Baha ") was generally recognized as his successor, but another
of his four sons, Muhammad 'Ali, put forward a rival claim.
This caused a fresh and bitter schism, but 'Abbas Efendi steadily
gained ground, and there could be little doubt as to his eventual

BABINGTON

95

triumph. The controversial literature connected with this latest
schism is abundant, not only in Persian, but in English, for since
1900 many Americans have adopted the religion of Baha. The
original apostle of America was Ibrahim George Khayru'llah,
who began his propaganda at the Chicago Exhibition and later
supported the claims of Muhammad 'AM. Several Persian
missionaries, including the aged and learned Mfrza Abu'1-Fazl of
Gulpayagan, were thereupon despatched to America by 'Abbas
Efendi, who was generally accepted by the American Baha'is as
" the Master." The American press contained many notices of
the propaganda and its success. An interesting article on the
subject, by Stoyan Krstoff Vatralsky of Boston, Mass., entitled
" Mohammedan Gnosticism in America," appeared in the
American Journal of Theology for January 1902, pp. 57-58.

A correct understanding of the doctrines of the early Babis
(now represented by the Ezelis) is hardly possible save to one who
is conversant with the theology of Islam and its developments,
and especially the tenets of the Shi'a. The Babis are Muham-
madans only in the sense that the Muhammadans are Christians
or the Christians Jews; that is to say, they recognize Muhammad
(Mahomet) as a true prophet and the Qur'an (Koran) as a re-
velation, but deny their finality. Revelation, according to their
view, is progressive, and no revelation is final, for, as the human
race progresses, a fuller measure of truth, and ordinances more
suitable to the age, are vouchsafed. The Divine Unity is incom-
prehensible, and can be known only through its Manifestations;
to recognize the Manifestation of the cycle in which he lives is
the supreme duty of man. Owing to the enormous volume and
unsystematic character of the Babi scriptures, and the absence
of anything resembling church councils, the doctrine on many
important points (such as the future life) is undetermined and
vague. The resurrection of the body is denied, but some form
of personal immortality is generally, though not universally,
accepted. Great importance was attached to the mystical values
of letters and numbers, especially the numbers 18 and 19 (" the
number of the unity ") and 19* = 361 (" the number of all
things ") . In general, the Bib's doctrines most closely resembled
those of the Isma'ilis and Hurfifis. In the hands of Baha the
aims of the sect became much more practical and ethical, and
the wilder pantheistic tendencies and metaphysical hair-splittings
of the early Babis almost disappeared. The intelligence, integrity
and morality of the Babis are high, but their efforts to improve
the social position of woman have been much exaggerated.
They were in no way concerned (as was at the time falsely alleged)
in the assassination of Nasiru'd-Din Shah in May 1896. Of
recent persecutions of the sect the two most notable took place
at Yazd, one in May 1891, and another of greater ferocity in
June 1903. Some account of the latter is given by Napier
Malcolm in his book Five Years in a Persian Town (London, 1905),
pp. 87-89 and 186. In the constitutional movement in Persia
(1907) the Babis, though their sympathies are undoubtedly
with the reformers, wisely refrained from outwardly identifying
themselves with that party, to whom their open support, by
alienating the orthodox mttjtahids and mull&s, would have proved
fatal. Here, as in all their actions, they clearly obeyed orders
issued from headquarters.

LITERATURE.— The literature of the sect is very voluminous, but
mostly in manuscript. The most valuable public collections in
Europe are at St Petersburg, London (British Museum) and Paris
(Bibhotheque Nationale), where two or three very rare MSS.
collected by Gobineau, including the precious history of the Bib's
contemporary, Hijji Mfrza Jint of Kashin, are preserved. For the
bibliography up to 1889, see vol. ii. pp. 173-211 of the Traveller's
Narrative, written to illustrate the Episode of the Bdb, a Persian
work composed by Bahi's son, 'Abbis Efendf, edited, translated
and annotated by E. G. Browne (Cambridge, 1891). More recent
works are: — Browne, The New History of the Bdb (Cambridge, 1893) ;
and " Catalogue and Description of the 27 Bibi Manuscripts,"
Journal of R. Asiat. Soc. (July and October 1892); Andreas, Die
Bdbi's in Persien (1896); Baron Victor Rosen, Collections scien-
tifiques de I'Institut des Langues orientates, vol. i. (1877), pp. 179-212 ;
vof. Hi. (1886), pp. 1-51; vol. vi. (1891), pp. 141-255; Manuscrits
Babys"; and other important articles in Russian by the same
scholar; and by Captain A. G. Toumansky in the Zapiski vostochnava
otdyeleniya Imperatorskava Russkava Archeologicheskava Obshchestva

(vols. iv.-xii., St Petersburg, 1890-1900); also an excellent edition
by Toumansky, with Russian translation, notes and introduction,
of the Kitdb-i-Aqdas (the most important of Bahi's works), &c.
(St Petersburg, 1899). Mention should also be made of an Arabic
history of the Bibfs (unsympathetic but well-informed) written by
a Persian, MIrzi Muhammad Mahdi Khan, Za'imu'd-Duvila, printed
jn Cairo in A.H. 1321 ( = A.D. 1903-1904). Of the works composed
in English for the American converts the most important are: —
Bahd'u'lldh (The Glory of God), by Ibrihfm Khayru'llih, assisted
by Howard MacNutt (Chicago, 1900) ; The Three Questions (n.d.)
and Facts for Bahdists (1901), by the same; Life and Teachings of
'Abbds Efendi, by Myron H. Phelps, with preface by E. G. Browne
(New York, 1903); Isabella Brittingham, The Revelations of
Bahd'u'lldh, in a Sequence of Four Lessons (1902) ; Laura Clifford
Burney, Some Answered Questions Collected [in Acre, 1904-1906] and
Translated from the Persian of 'Abdu'l-Bahd [i.e. ' Abbis Efendi]
(London, 1908). In French, A. L. M. Nicolas (first dragoman at
the French legation at Tehrin) has published several important
translations, viz. Le Livre des sept preuves de la mission du Bdb (Paris,
1902); l.i- Livre de la certitude (1904); and Le Beydn arabe (1905);
and there are other notable works by H. Dreyfus, an adherent of the
Bib! faith. Lastly, mention should be made of a remarkable but
scarce little tract by Gabriel Sacy, printed at Cairo in June 1902,
and entitled Du regne de Dieu et de fAgneau, connu sous le nom de
Babysme. (E. G. B.)

BABINGTON, ANTHONY (1561-1586), English conspirator,
son of Henry Babington of Dethick in Derbyshire, and of Mary,
daughter of George, Lord Darcy, was born in October 1561, and
was brought up secretly a Roman Catholic. As a youth he served
at Sheffield as page to Mary queen of Scots, for whom he early
felt an ardent devotion. In 1580 he came to London, attended
the court of Elizabeth, and joined the secret society formed that
year supporting the Jesuit missionaries. In 1582 after the
execution of Father Campion he withdrew to Dethick, and
attaining his majority occupied himself for a short time witi the
management of his estates. Later he went abroad and became
associated at Paris with Mary's supporters who were planning
her release with the help of Spain, and on his return he was
entrusted with letters for her. In April 1586 he became, with
the priest John Ballard, leader of a plot to murder Elizabeth and
her ministers, and organize a general Roman Catholic rising in
England and liberate Mary. The conspiracy was regarded by
Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, one of its chief instigators,
and also by Walsingham, as the most dangerous of recent years;
it included, in its general purpose of destroying the government,
a large number of Roman Catholics, and had ramifications all
over the country. Philip II. of Spain, who ardently desired the
success of an enterprise " so Christian, just and advantageous
to the holy Catholic faith," * promised to assist with an expedition
directly the assassination of the queen was effected. Babington's
conduct was marked by open folly and vanity. Desirous of some
token of appreciation from Mary for his services, he entered into
a long correspondence with her, which was intercepted by the
spies of Walsingham. On the 4th of August Ballard was seized
and betrayed his comrades, probably under torture. Babington
then applied for a passport abroad, for the ostensible purpose of
spying upon the refugees, but in reality to organize the foreign
expedition and secure his own safety. The passport being
delayed, he offered to reveal to Walsingham a dangerous con-
spiracy, but the latter sent no reply, and meanwhile the ports
were closed and none allowed to leave the kingdom for some days.
He was still allowed his liberty, but one night while supping
with Walsingham's servant he observed a memorandum of the
minister's concerning himself, fled to St John's Wood, where he
was joined by some of his companions, and after disguising
himself succeeded in reaching Harrow, where he was sheltered
by a recent convert to Romanism. Towards the end of August
he was discovered and imprisoned in the Tower. On the I3th
and i4th of September he was tried with Ballard and five others
by a special commission, when he confessed his guilt, but strove
to place all the blame upon Ballard. All were condemned to
death for high treason. On the i9th he wrote to Elizabeth
praying for mercy, and the same day offered £1000 for procuring
his pardon; and on the zoth, having disclosed the cipher used
in the correspondence between, himself and Mary, he was executed

1 Cata. of State Papers Simancas, iii. 606, Mendoza to Philip.

96

BABINGTON— BABRIUS

with the usual barbarities in Lincoln's Inn Fields. The detection
of the plot led to Mary's own destruction. There is no positive
documentary proof in Mary's own hand that she had knowledge
of the intended assassination of Elizabeth, but her circumstances,
together with the tenour of her correspondence with Babington,
place her complicity beyond all reasonable doubt.

BABINGTON, CHURCHILL (1821-1889), English classical
scholar and archaeologist, was born at Roecliffe, in Leicestershire,
on the 1 1 th of March 1821. He was educated by his father till he
was seventeen, when he was placed under the tuition of Charles
Wycliffe Goodwin, the orientalist and archaeologist. He entered
St John's College, Cambridge, in 1839, and graduated B.A. in
1843, being seventh in the first class of the classical tripos and a
senior optime. In 1845 he obtained the Hulsean Prize for his
essay The Influence of Christianity in promoting the Abolition of
Slavery in Europe. In 1846 he was elected to a fellowship and
took orders. He proceeded to the degree of M.A. in 1846 and
D.D. in 1879. From 1848 to 1861 he was vicar of Horningsea, near
Cambridge, and from 1866 to his death on the i2th of January
1889, vicar of Cockfield in Suffolk. From 1865 to 1880 he held
the Disney professorship of archaeology at Cambridge. In his
lectures, illustrated from his own collections of coins and vases,
he dealt chiefly with Greek and Roman pottery and numismatics.

Dr Babington was a many-sided man and wrote on a variety
of subjects. His early familiarity with country life gave him a
taste for natural history, especially botany and ornithology.
He was also an authority on conchology. He was the author of
the appendices on botany (in part) and ornithology in Potter's
History and Antiquities of Charnwood Forest (1842); Mr
Macaiday's Character of the Clergy . . . considered (1849), a
defence of the clergy of the I7th century, which received the
approval of Mr Gladstone, against the strictures of Macaulay.
He also brought out the editio princeps of the speeches of
Hypereides Against Demosthenes (1850), On Behalf of Lycophron
and Euxenippus (1853), and his Funeral Oration (1858). It was
by his edition of these speeches from the papyri discovered at
Thebes (Egypt) in 1847 and 1856 that Babington's fame as a
Greek scholar was made. In 1855 he published an edition
of Bencfizio della Morte di Cristo, a remarkable book of the
Reformation period, attributed to Paleario, of which nearly all
the copies had been destroyed by the Inquisition. Babington's
edition was a facsimile of the editio princeps published at Venice
in 1543, with Introduction and French and English versions.
He also edited the first two volumes of Higden's Polychronicon
(1858) and Bishop Pecock's Represser of Overmuch Blaming of the
Clergy (1860), undertaken at the request of the Master of the
Rolls; Introductory Lecture on Archaeology (1865); Roman
Antiquities found at Rougham [1872]; Catalogue of Birds of
Suffolk (1884-1886); Flora of Sufolk (with W. M. Hind, 1889),
and (1855, 1865) some inscriptions found in Crete by T. A. B.
Spratt, the explorer of the island. In addition to contributing
to various classical and scientific journals, he catalogued the
classical MSS. in the University Library and the Greek and
English coins in the Fitzwilliam museum.

BABIRUSA (" pig-deer "), the Malay name of the wild swine
of Celebes and Buru, which has been adopted in zoology as the
scientific designation of this remarkable animal (the only repre-
sentative of its genus), in the form of Babirusa alfurus. The
skin is nearly naked, and very rough and rugged. The total
number of teeth is 34, with the formula «'.?. c.\. p.\. m.\. The
molars, and more especially the last, are smaller and simpler than
in the pigs of the genus Sus, but the peculiarity of this genus is
the extraordinary development of the canines, or tusks, of the
male. These teeth are ever-growing, long, slender and curved,
and without enamel. Those of the upper jaw are directed
upwards from their bases, so that they never enter the mouth,
but pierce the skin of the face, thus resembling horns rather than
teeth; they curve backwards, downwards, and finally often
forwards again, almost or quite touching the forehead. Dr A. R.
Wallace remarks that "it is difficult to understand what can be
the use of these horn-like teeth. Some of the old writers supposed
that they served as hooks by which the creature could rest its

head on a branch. But the way in which they usually diverge
just over and in front of the eye has suggested the more probable
idea, that they serve to guard these organs from thorns and
spines while hunting for fallen fruits among the tangled thickets
of rattans and other spiny plants. Even this, however, is not
satisfactory, for the female, who must seek her food in the same
way, does not possess them. I should be inclined to believe
rather that these tusks were once useful, and were then worn

Old Male Babirusa (Babirusa alfurus).

down as fast as they grew, but that changed conditions of life
have rendered them unnecessary, and they now develop into a
monstrous form, just as the incisors of the beaver and rabbit will
go on growing if the opposite teeth do not wear them away. In
old animals they reach an enormous size, and are generally
broken off as if by fighting." On this latter view we may regard
the tusks of the male babirusa as examples of redundant develop-
ment, analogous to that of the single pair of lower teeth in some
of the beaked whales. Unlike ordinary wild pigs, the babirusa
produces uniformly coloured young. (See SWINE.) (R. L.*)

BABOON (from the Fr. babuin, which is itself derived
from Babon, the Egyptian deity to whom it was sacred), properly
the designation of the long-muzzled, medium-tailed Egyptian
monkey, scientifically known as Papio anubis; in a wider sense
applied to all the members of the genus Papio (formerly known
as Cynocephalus) now confined to Africa and Arabia, although
in past times extending into India. Baboons are for the most
part large terrestrial monkeys with short or medium-sized tails,
and long naked dog-like muzzles, in the truncated extremity of
which are pierced the nostrils. As a rule, they frequent barren
rocky districts in large droves, and are exceedingly fierce and
dangerous to approach. They have large cheek-pouches, large
naked callosities, often brightly coloured, on the buttocks, and
short thick limbs, adapted rather to walking than to climbing.
Their diet includes practically everything eatable they can
capture or kill. The typical representative of the genus is the
yellow baboon (P. cynocephalus, or babuin), distinguished by
its small size and grooved muzzle, and ranging from Abyssinia
to the Zambezi. The above-mentioned anubis baboon, P. anubis
(with the subspecies neumanni, pruinosus, heuglini and doguera) ,
ranging from Egypt all through tropical Africa, together with
P. sphinx, P. olivaceus, the Abyssinian P. lydekkeri, and the
chacma, P. porcarius of the Cape, represent the subgenus
Choeropithecus. The named Arabian baboon, P. hamadryas of
North Africa and Arabia, dedicated by the ancient Egyptians
to the god Thoth, and the South Arabian P. arabicus, typify
Hamadryas; while the drill and mandrill of the west coast,
P. leucophaeus and P. maimon, constitute the subgenus Maimon.
The anubis baboons, as shown by the frescoes, were tamed by
the ancient Egyptians and trained to pluck sycamore-figs from
the trees. (See PRIMATES; CHACMA; DRILL; GELADA and
MANDRILL). (R. L.*)

BABRIUS, author of a collection of fables written in Greek.
Practically nothing is known of him. He is supposed to have
been a Roman, whose gentile name was possibly Valerius,
living in the East, probably in Syria, where the fables seem first

BABU— BABY-FARMING

97

to have gained popularity. The address to " a son of King
Alexander " has caused much speculation, with the result that
dates varying between the 3rd century B.C. and the 3rd century
A.D. have been assigned to Babrius. The Alexander referred to
may have been Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235), wh° was fond
of having literary men of all kinds about his court. " The son of
Alexander " has further been identified with a certain Branchus
mentioned in the fables, and it is suggested that Babrius may
have been his tutor; probably, however, Branchus is a purely
fictitious name. There is no mention of Babrius in ancient
writers before the beginning of the 3rd century A.D., and his
language and style seem to show that he belonged to that period.
The first critic who made Babrius more than a mere name was
Richard Bentley, in his Dissertation on the Fables of Aesop. In
a careful examination of these prose Aesopian fables, which
had been handed down in various collections from the time of
Maximus Planudes, Bentley discovered traces of versification,
and was able to extract a number of verses which he assigned to
Babrius. Tyrwhitt (De Babrio, 1776) followed up the researches
of Bentley, and for some time the efforts of scholars were directed
towards reconstructing the metrical original of the prose fables.
In 1842 M. Minas, a Greek, the discoverer of the PhUosophoumena
of Hippolytus, came upon a MS. of Babrius in the convent of St
Laura on Mount Athos, now in the British Museum. This MS.
contained 123 fables out of the supposed original number, 160.
They are arranged alphabetically, but break off at the letter O.
The fables are written in choliambic, i.e. limping or imperfect
iambic verse, having a spondee as the last foot, a metre originally
appropriated to satire. The style is extremely good, the expres-
sion being terse and pointed, the versification correct and elegant,
and the construction of the stories is fully equal to that in the
prose versions. The genuineness of this collection of the fables
was generally admitted by scholars. In 1857 Minas professed to
have discovered at Mount Athos another MS. containing 94
fables and a preface. As the monks refused to sell this MS., he
made a copy of it, which was sold to the British Museum, and
was published in 1859 by Sir G. Cornewall Lewis. This, however,
was soon proved to be a forgery. Six more fables were brought
to light by P. Knoll from a Vatican MS. (edited by A. Eberhard,
Analecta Babriana, 1879).

EDITIONS. — Boissonade (1844); Lachmann (1845); Schneider
(1853); Eberhard (1876); Gitlbauer (1882); Rutherford (1883);
Knoll, Fabularum Babrianarum Paraphrasis Bodleiana (1877) ;
Feuillet (1890); Desrousseaux (1890); Passerat (1892); Croiset
(1892); Crusius (1897). See also Mantels, ttber die Fabeln des B.
(1840); Crusius, De Babrii Aetate (1879); Ficus, De Babrii Vita
(1889); J. Weiner, Quaestiones Babrianae (1891); Conington,
Miscellaneous Writings, ii. 460-491 ; Marchiano, Babrio (1899) ; Fusci,
Babrio (1901); Christoffersson, Studia de Fabulis Babrianis (1901).
There are translations in English by Davies (1860) and in French
by Leveque (1890), and in many other languages.

BABU, a native Indian clerk. The word is really a term of
respect attached to a proper name, like " master " or " Mr,"
and Babu-ji is still used in many parts of India, meaning " sir ";
but without the suffix the word itself is now generally used
contemptuously as signifying a semi-literate native, with a
mere veneer of modern education.

BABY-FARMING,1 a term meaning generally the taking in of
infants to nurse for payment, but usually with an implication
of improper treatment. Previous to the year 1871 the abuse
of the practice of baby-farming in England had grown to an
alarming extent, while the trials of Margaret Waters and Mary
Hall called attention to the infamous relations between the
lying-in houses and the baby-farming houses of London.. The
evil was, no doubt, largely connected with the question of
illegitimacy, for there was a wide-spread existence of baby-
farms where children were received without question on payment
of a lump sum. Such children were nearly all illegitimate, and
in these cases it was to the pecuniary advantage of the baby-
farmer to hasten the death of the child. It had become also
the practice for factory operatives and mill-hands to place out

Baby is a diminutive or pet form of " babe," now chiefly used
in poetry or scriptural language. " Babe " is probably a form of
the earlier baban, a reduplicated form of the infant sound ba.

m. 4

their children by the day, and since in many cases the children
were looked upon as a burden and a drain on their parents'
resources, too particular inquiry was not always made as to the
mode in which the children were cared for. The form was gone
through too of paying a ridiculously insufficient sum for the
maintenance of the child. In 1871 the House of Commons
found it necessary to appoint a select committee " to inquire as
to the best means of preventing the destruction of the lives of
infants put out to nurse for hire by their parents." " Improper
and insufficient food," said the committee, " opiates, drugs,
crowded rooms, bad air, want of cleanliness, and wilful neglect
are sure to be followed in a few months by diarrhoea, convulsions
and wasting away." These unfortunate children were nearly
all illegitimate, and the mere fact of their being hand-nursed,
and not breast-nursed, goes some way (according to the experi-
ence of the Foundling hospital and the Magdalene home) to
explain the great mortality among them. Such children, when
nursed by their mothers in the workhouse, gePsrally live. The
practical result of the committee of 1871 was the act of 1872,
which provided for the compulsory registration of all houses
in which more than one child under the age of one yea"
were received for a longer period than twenty -four hours. No
licence was granted by the justices of the peace, unless the house
was suitable for the purpose, and its owner a person of good
character and able to maintain the children. Offences against
the act, including wilful neglect of the children even in a suitable
house, were punishable by a fine of £5 or six months' imprison-
ment with or without hard labour. In 1896 a select committee
of the House of Lords sat and reported on the working of this
act. In consequence of this report the act of 1872 was repealed
and superseded by the Infant Life Protection Act 1897, which
did away with the system of registration and substituted for it
one of notice to a supervening authority. By the act all persons
retaining or receiving for hire more than one infant under the
age of five had to give written notice of the fact to the local
authority. The local authorities were empowered to appoint
inspectors, and required to arrange for the periodical inspection
of infants so taken in, while they could also fix the number of
infants which might be retained. By a special clause any person
receiving an infant under the age of two years for a sum of
money not exceeding twenty pounds had to give notice of the
fact to the local authority. If any infants were improperly kept,
the inspector might obtain an order for their removal to a work-
houseorplace of safety until restored to their parents orguardians,
or otherwise legally disposed of. The act of 1897 was repealed
and amended by the Children Act 1908, which codified the law
relating to children, and added many new provisions. This act
is dealt with in the article CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO.

In the United States the law is noticeably strict in most
states. In Massachusetts, a law of 1891 directs that "every
person who receives for board, or for the purpose of procuring
adoption, an infant under the age of three years shall use diligence
to ascertain whether or not such infant is illegitimate, and if he
knows or has reason to believe it to be illegitimate shall forthwith
notify the State Board of Charity of the fact of such reception;
and said board and its officers or agents may enter and inspect
any building where they may have reason to believe that any
such illegitimate infant is boarded, and remove such infant
when, in 'heir judgment, such removal is necessary by reason
of neglect, abuse or other causes, in order to preserve the
infant's life, and such infant so removed shall be in the custody
of said Board of Charity, v.hich shall make provision therefor
according to law." The penal code of the state of New York
requires a licence for baby-farming to be issued by the board of
health of the city or town where such children are boarded or
kept, and " every person so licensed must keep a register wherein
he shall enter the names and ages of all such children, and of all
children born on such premises, and the names and residences
of their parents, as far as known, the time of reception and the
discharge of such children, and the reasons therefor, and also a
correct register of every child under five years of age who is
given out, adopted, taken away, or indentured from such place

98

BABYLON

to or by any one, together with the name and residence of the
person so adopting " (Pen. Code, § 288, subsec. 4).

Persons neglecting children may be prosecuted under § 289
of the N.Y. penal code, which provides that any person who
" wilfully causes or permits the life or limb of any child, actually
or apparently under the age of sixteen years, to be endangered,
or its health to be injured, or its morals to become depraved
... is guilty of a misdemeanour."

In Australia particular care has been taken by most of the
states to prevent the evils of baby-farming. In South Australia
there is a State Children's Council, which, under the State
Children Act of 1895, has large powers with respect to the
oversight of infants under two years boarded out by their
mother. " Foster-mothers," as the women who take in infants
as boarders are called, must be licensed, while the number of
children authorized to be kept by the foster-mother is fixed by
licence; every licensed foster-mother must keep a register
containing the name, age and place of birth of every child
received by her, the names, addresses and description of the
parents, or of any person other than the parents from or to
whom the child was received or delivered over, the date of
receipt or delivery over, particulars of any accident to or illness
of the child, and the name of the medical practitioner (if any)
by whom attended. In New South Wales the Children's Protec-
tion Act of 1892, with the amendments of 1902, requires the
same state supervision over the homes in which children are
boarded out, with licensing of foster-mothers. In Victoria an
act was passed in 1890 for " making better provision for the
protection of infant life." In New Zealand, there is legislation
to the same effect by the " Adoption of Children Act 1895 "
and the "Infant Life Protection Act 1896."

BABYLON (mod. Hillah), an ancient city on the left bank of
the Euphrates, about 70 m. S. of Bagdad. " Babylon " is the
Greek form of Babel or Bab-ili, " the gate of the god " (some-
times incorrectly written "of the gods"), which again is the
Semitic translation of the original Sumerian name Ka-dimirra.
The god was probably Merodach or Marduk (q.v.), the divine
patron of the city. In an inscription of the Kassite conqueror
Gaddas the name appears as Ba-ba-lam, as if from the Assyrian
babalu, " to bring "; another foreign Volksetymologie is found in
Genesis xi. 9, from balbal, " to confound." A second name of
the city, which perhaps originally denoted a separate village or
quarter, was Su-anna, and in later inscriptions it is often repre-
sented ideographically by E-ki, the pronunciation and meaning
of which are uncertain. One of its oldest names, however, was
Din-tir, of which the poets were especially fond ; Din-tir signifies
in Sumerian " the life of the forest," though a native lexicon
translates it " seat of life." Uru-azagga, " the holy city," was
also a title sometimes applied to Babylon as to other cities in
Babylonia. Ka-dimirra, the Semitic Bab-ili, probably denoted
at first E-Saggila, " the house of the lofty head," the temple
dedicated to Bel-Merodach, along with its immediate surround-
ings. Like the other great sanctuaries of Babylonia the temple
had been founded in pre-Semitic times, and the future Babylon
grew up around it. Since Merodach was the son of Ea, the
culture god of Eridu near Ur on the Persian Gulf, it is possible
that Babylon was a colony of Eridu. Adjoining Babylon was a
town called Borsippa (q.v.).

The earliest mention of Babylon is in a dated tablet of the
reign of Sargon of Akkad (3800 B.C.), who is stated to have built
sanctuaries there to Anunit and A6 (or Ea), and H. Winckler
may be right in restoring a mutilated passage in the annals of
this king so as to make it mean that Babylon owed its name to
Sargon, who made it the capital of his empire. If so, it fell back
afterwards into the position of a mere provincial town and re-
mained so for centuries, until it became the capital of " the first
dynasty of Babylon " and then of Khammurabi's empire (2250
B.C.). From this time onward it continued to be the capital of
Babylonia and the holy city of western Asia. The claim to
supremacy in Asia, however real in fact, was not admitted
de jure until the claimant had " taken the hands " of Bel-
Merodach at Babylon, and thereby been accepted as his adopted

son and the inheritor of the old Babylonian empire. It was this
which made Tiglath-pileser III. and other Assyrian kings so
anxious to possess themselves of Babylon and so to legitimize
their power. Sennacherib alone seems to have failed in securing
the support of the Babylonian priesthood; at all events he never
underwent the ceremony, and Babylonia throughout his reign
was in a constant state of revolt which was finally suppressed
only by the complete destruction of the capital. In 689 B.C. its
walls, temples and palaces were razed to the ground and the
rubbish thrown into the Arakhtu, the canal w